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A  SURVEY  OF 


INDUSTRIAL  HLALTH-HAZARD5 

AND 

OCCUPATIONAL  DI5LA5L5 

IN  OHIO 
By  L.  R.  HAYHUR5T,  A.  M.,  M.D. 

DIRLCTOR.  DIVISION  OF  OCCUPATIONAL  DISLA5L5. 
STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH 


PRLPARLD  IN  CONFORMITY  WITH 

HOUSL  JOINT  RESOLUTION  No.  I2-LIGHTILTH 

GLNLRAL  ASSEMBLY  OF  OHIO 


UNDER  THE  GENERAL  SUPERVISION  AND 
DIRECTION  OF  THE 

OHIO  5TATL  BOARD  OF  HEALTH 

L.  F.  McCAMPBLLL,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D. 

Secretary  and  Executive  Officer 


FEBRUARY,  1915 


Columbus,  Ohio: 

Thk  I<".  J.  Heer  Printing  Co, 

1915 


5 


INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH  -  HAZARDS   AND 
OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES  IN  OHIO 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


Columbus,  Ohio,  February  i,  191 5. 

To    the  Members   of  the   Eighty-first    General   Assembly,    Columbus, 
Ohio. 

Gentlemen  : — Pursuant  to  House  Joint  Resolution  No.  12, 
(Laws  of  Ohio,  1913,  Vol.  103,  p.  975).  On  behalf  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health  I  am  herewith  transmitting  to  the  Eighty-first  Gen- 
eral Assembly  the  results  of  the  survey  which  was  directed  and  au- 
thorized. This  survey  deals  with  the  effect  of  various  occupations 
upon  the  health  of  those  workers  engaged  therein.  The  resolution 
authorizing  and  directing  this  investigation  is  herewith  appended. 

Respectfully, 
E.  F.  McCampbell,  Ph.  D.,  M.  D., 
Secretary  and  Executive  Officer, 

Ohio  State  Board  of  Health. 
iii 


JOINT  RESOLUTION 

Authorizing  and  directing  the  state  board  of  health  to  make  an 
investigation  of  occupational  diseases. 

Whereas^  The  employment  of  men  and  women  in  certain  occu- 
pations is  known  to  be  attended  with  more  than  ordinary  danger  to 
health,  giving  rise  to  what  is  known  as  "occupational  diseases",  and 

Whereas^  Unnecessary  sickness  and  shortening  of  life,  from 
whatever  cause,  is  a  serious  loss  and  of  grave  concern  to  the  state  and 
to  all  the  people,  and 

Whereas,  It  is  believed  to  be  possible,  by  public  education  and 
by  the  enforcement  of  proper  measures,  to  largely  prevent  unneces- 
sary sickness  and  premature  death  among  employes  in  various  trades 
and  occupation,  therefore, 

Be  is  resolved  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio, 
That  the  state  board  of  health  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to 
make  a  thorough  investigation  of  the  effect  of  occupations  upon  the 
health  of  those  engaged  therein  with  special  reference  to  dust  and 
dangerous  chemicals  and  gases,  to  insufficient  ventilation  and  lighting, 
and  to  such  other  unhygienic  conditions  as  in  the  opinion  of  said 
TDoard  may  be  specially  injurious  tO'  health,  and  to  report  to  the  next 
general  assembly  the  results  of  such  investigation,  with  such  recom- 
mendations for  legislative  or  other  remedial  measures  as  it  may  deem 
proper  and  advisable. 

Be  it  further  resolved.  That  the  finance  committee  of  the  House 
and  the  Senate  be  requested  to  place  in  the  general  appropriation  bill 
an  appropriation  of  $7,000  for  the  year  1913  and  $7,000  for  the 
year  1914  for  carrying  on  the  above  work  by  the  state  board  of  health. 

[Signed]   C.  L.  Swain, 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
[Signed]  Hugh  L.  Nichols, 

President  of  the  Senate. 

Adopted  February  13th,  19 13. 


OHIO  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 
Division  of  Occupational  Diseases, 


Columbus,  January  31,  1915. 

Sir:  I  beg  to  transmit  herewith  the  Report  of  the  Survey  of 
Industrial  Health-hazards  and  Occupational  Diseases,  embodying  the 
results  of  the  investigation  made  in  compliance  with  House  Joint 
Resolution  No.  12,  of  February  13,  1913. 

■  The  Report  deals  with  the  investigation  of  the  effect  of  occupa- 
tions upon  the  health  of  those  engaged  therein,  with  special  reference 
to  health-hazardous  conditions  as  opinionated  by  a  special  staff  of 
investigators  who  have  inspected  the  work  places  of  about  half  of  those 
employed  in  manufacturing  industries  and  in  some  non-manufacturing 
industries  in  the  State  of  Ohio. 
I  am,  very  respectfully, 

Emery  R.  Hayhurst, 
Director,  Division  of  Occupational  Diseases, 

Chief,  Survey  of  Occupational  Diseases. 

Dr.  E.  F.  McCampbell, 

Secretary  and  Executive  Officer, 
Ohio  State  Board  of  Health. 

vi 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Letters  of  Transmittal iv 

Table  of  Contents vii 

List  of   Illustrations ; ; xi 

Introduction   xv 

PART  I. 

Historical  Notes 1-8 

Legislative  Enactments ' 3 

Physicians'  Reporting  Form 6 

PART  II. 

General  Principles  of  Industrial  Hygiene .- 9_16 

General  Sources  of  Information 9 

Definitions  and  Physiological  Adaptations 10 

Industrial  Vital  Statistics ■ 13 

PART  III. 

Industrial   Health-Hazards 17-50 

Dust    .17 

Dirt    20 

Darkness 21 

Dampness    23 

Devitalizing  Air 26 

Heat   29 

Cold. 32 

Fatigue 33 

Inactivity 38 

Germs  and  Infection 39 

Poisons 42 

Compressed  Air  ' 48 

Foul  Odors    49 

Venereal  Diseases    50 

Stimulantism     50 

FART  IV. 

Plan,  Scope  and  Conduct  of  the  Investigation 51-105 

Definitions    54 

Examples  of  Records  in  Certain  Establishments 55 

Industries  Having  a  Known  Association  With  the  Use  of  Poisons  59 

Industries  Having  a  Know.n  Association  With  Dust 77 

vii 


Vlll 

PlaNj  Scope  and  Conduct  of  the  Investigation  —  Concluded.  page 

Industries  in  Which  Fatigue,  Monotony  or  Inactivity  are  Health- 
Hazards 80 

Industries  in  Which  Heat,  Cold.  Moisture  and  Dampness  are  the 

Chief  Health-Hazards    83 

Industries  in  Which  There  is  a  Liability  of  Contracting  Com- 
municable Diseases    89 

Industries    Having    Miscellaneous    Hazards    not    Included    Under 

Previous  Headings   100 

Recapitulation   of   Industries    Investigated 103 

PART  V. 

Health-Hazardous    Processes    106-357 

Scope  and  Methods  of  Inquiry .' 106 

.    General  Processes 1 15-184 

Factory  Processes   (General) 117 

Gas  Producing 121 

Stationary  Firing  and  Engineering 122 

Furnacing    123 

Forging  and  Blacksmithing 124 

Coremaking    126 

Iron  Founding  128 

V  Brass  Founding  , 132 

Metal  Grinding  135 

V  Sand  Blasting 139 

Polishing  and  Buffing 141 

Machine  Shopping  ; '. 144 

Tempering    147 

Brazing 149 

Welding    150 

■^    Soldering  and  Lead  Burning 151 

■       Pickling    153 

Galvanizing    155 

Tinning    156 

Acid  Dipping   159 

Electroplating 160 

Mixing  Chemicals  1 63 

Wood  Working   165 

Gluing,  Pasting  and  Labeling 167 

Painting  and  Varnishing  168 

Shellacing  and  'Lacquering 172 

Enameling    1 '  3 

Japanning    1*^5 

Lithographing    176 

Upholstering   177 

Sewing    178 

Ironing  and  Pressing 181 

Junk 182 


IX 


PAGE 

Special   Processes 1 85-356 

Printing  and  Pu'l)lishin,(4- '.  .  .  l^.j 

L  Laundry 19,2 

/  Dry  Cleaning  19(5 

Eyeing   '. 199 

Storage  Batteries   201 

Dry  Batteries   203 

Incandescent   Lam]).s    204 

Rubber    206 

Pottery     229 

Glass 256 

Stone    265 

^Grindstones     268 

Emery  Wheels   268 

Porcelain  Enameled  Iron  Ware 269 

Mirrors    270 

Soap  and  By-products 270 

Baking    ■ 272 

Con  f  ectionery 273 

Canning  and   Preserving 275 

Carbonated  Waters 278 

Ice  Manufacturing  278 

Liquors,   Malt    ■      280 

Tobacco 282 

Salt   289 

Brooms    290 

Street  Cleaning 291 

Dining    Cars 291 

Lime 293 

Cement    294 

Brick  and  Tile 295 

Files    298 

Iron  and  Steel 300 

Leather  Tanning  317 

Boots  and  Shoes 321 

.y  Textiles    .328 

Cordage  331 

Mattresses    3-33 

Paper  and  Wood  Pulp 334 

Oil  Refining  .339 

Chemicals    340 

Matches    .343 

Explosives    344 

Fertilizers    347 

Paints  and  Varnishes   350 

Oilcloth    .355 

PART  VI. 

Classification  of  Occupational  Diseases  and  Complaints  by  In- 

dust'ries  and  Processes  357-378 


PART  VII. 

PAGE 

Special  Investigations  and  Publicity 378-400 

Lead  Poisoning  —  Its  Diagnosis 378 

Method  for  the  Detection  of  Lead  in  Urine. 388 

Lead  Poisoning  — How  to  Prevent. 

Instructions    to    Employes 393 

Instruction  to  Employes  in  Dusty  Trades 393 

Four  Cases  of  Sudden  Death  in  a  Silo 394 

.      PART  VIII. 

Measures  of  Prevention 400-407 

General  Principles  of  the  Prevention  of  Occupational  Diseases 400 

Corrective  Measures  Recommended 402 

Index 409 


Acknowledgement  is  m'^de  to  the  following  establishments,  so- 
cieties and  persons  for  photographs  and  cuts  kindly  submitted  or 
loaned  for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  the  Report  —  all  in  Ohio  unless 
otherwise  specified : 

American    Encaustic    Tiling    Company     Zanesville. 

Captain  J.  R.  Harris,  M.  D.,  (Fort  Slocum,  N.  Y.). 

Dean  Edward  Orton,  Columtus. 

Dr.  Ernest  H.  Cox,  Cleveland. 

Dr.  O.  O.  Fordyce,  State  Hospital,  Athens. 

Dr.  Arthur  E.  Osmond,  Cincinnati. 

Dr.  Raymond  A.  Ramsey,  Columbus. 

Illuminating  Engineering  Society  (New  York  City). 

Norton   Company    (Worcestei*,  Mass). 

The  Barnes  Manufacturing  Company,  Mansfield. 

The  Crooksville  China  Company,  Crooksville. 

The  Dayton  Dry  Cleaning  Company,  Dayton. 

The  Faultless  Rubber  Company,  Ashland. 

The  Federal  Glass  Company,  Columbus. 

The  Firestone  Tire   and   Rubber   Company,   Akron. 

The  F.  J.  Heer  Printing  Company,  Columbus. 

The  French  China  Company,  Sebring. 

The  Miller  Rubber  Company,  Akron. 

The  National  Cash  Register  Company,  Dayton. 

The  National  Tube  Company,  Lorain. 

The  Piqua  Hosiery  Company,  Piqua. 

The  Pottery  Gazette    (London,   Eng.). 

The  Pullman  Car  Company   (Chicago). 

The  Rubber  Products  Company,  Barberton. 

The  Selby  Shoe  Company,  Portsmouth. 

Taylor   Instrument   Companies,    (Rochester,   N.   Y.).  ' 

The  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines   (Washington,  D.  C). 

xi 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Fig.  page 

1  —  Dry  Grinding  and  Alixing  of  Ingredients 17 

2  —  Metal   Polishing    18 

3 —  Iron  and  Steel  Works  Interior 19 

4  —  Clay  Stock  House 20 

5  —  Eyestrain 21 

6  —  Poor    Illumination 22 

7  —  Well  Lighted  Factory  Room 23 

8  —  Dark  Wall  Shades  Affect  Illumination 24 

9  —  Clay  Preparation  in  Pottery  Works 25 

10  —  The  Wet-and-Dry^Blub  Thermometer   .\  .  26 

11  —  Smoke  Nuisance  27 

12  —  To  Convert  an  Ordinary  Sash  Window  Into  a  Ventilator 28 

13  —  The  Elements  of  Exhaust  Ventilation 29 

14  —  Air-Conditioning  Apparatus  for  Factory  Ventilation 80 

15  —  Electric  Fan   31 

16  —  The  Rest  Interval  for  Hot  Process  Workers 82 

17  —  Sanitary  Provisions  in  a  Modern  Steel  Works 83 

18  —  Sorting  and  Marking  in  a  Laundry 84 

19  —  Ideal  Working  Conditions 35 

20  —  The  Normal  Position  of  the  Feet  in  Standing  or  Walking 37 

21  — Flat  Feet '.  37 

22  —  Pressing  Department  in  Clay  House 89 

28  —  Two  Health  Protectors  in  Factory  Life 40 

24  — First  Aid  Kit 40 

25  —  Needed  in  All  Work  Places 41 

26  —  Lead  Poisoning   48 

27  —  Paralysis  from  Lead  Poisoning 44 

28  —  Death  from  Lead  Poisoning 45 

29  — Making  Rubber  Gloves 46 

30  — The  Meltzer  Artificial  Respiration  Apparatus 47 

31  —  The  Meltzer  Artificial  Respiration  Apparatus 48 

82  —  Sanitary  Drinking  Fountain 49 

33  —  Industrial  Tuberculosis 90 

34  —  Granulated  Eyelids  93 

85  —  A  Factory  Rest   Room lOS 

36  —  The   Employer's   Interest   in   the   Welfare   of   Employes   May    Well 

Extend  Beyond  the  Work  Place 109 

37  —  Model  Factory  Conditions 119 

38  —  Cleaning  Metal  Castings 132 

39  —  Brass  Foundry  133 

40  —  Sandblasting    140 

41  —  Buffing  Metals   ' 142 

42  —  A  Model  Machine  Shop 145 

xii 


Xlll 


Fig.  page 

43  —  Blacksmithing  and  Tempering r 148 

44  —  Acid-Dipping  in  Plating  Room 159 

45  —  Acid-Dipping  in  Plating  Room 161 

46  —  Woodworking  Shop 166 

47  —  Model  Sewing  Room  in  an  Underwear  Factory 179 

48  —  Proper  Arrangement  of  Workmen  to  Light 185 

49  —  Linotype  Room  187 

50  —  Recovering  Type  Metal .  — 188 

51  —  Dry  Cleaning 197 

52  —  Dry  Cleaning  198 

53  —  Ru'bber  Manufacture  —  Mill  and  Calender  Room 209 

54  —  Rubber  Mixing  Mills 210 

55  —  Rubber  Calender 211 

56  —  Rubber  "Dipping  Room" 216 

57  —  Making  Rubber  Specialties 220 

58  — Rubber  "Cold  Cure"  Process 222 

59  —  Rubber  Works   223 

60  —  Mixing  Rubber  Cement 227 

61  — The  Slip  House ; 230 

62  —  Sagger-Making  Room   232 

63  —  Mold  Making 233 

64  —  A  Line  of  Jiggermen  in  the  Clay  House 234 

65  —  Pressing  Department  in  Clay  House 235 

66  —  Pressroom  in  an  Art  Tile  Works 236 

67  —  "Green"  Room   237 

68  —  Glaze  Mixing 239 

69  —  Dipping  Room  240 

70  — Hand  Glazing  of  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles 241 

71  —  Machine  Glazing  of  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles 242 

72  — Bisque  Kiln  House 245 

73  —  Glost  Kiln  House 246 

74  —  Finishing  or  "Dressing"  Ware  in  Bisque  Warehouse 248 

75  —  Finishing  or  "Dressing"  Glost  Ware,  After  Same  Has  Been  Drawn 

from  Glost  Kilns   249 

76  —  Decorating  Department   250 

77  —  Decorating  Department   • 251 

78 —  Pottery  Tinting  or  Aerographing 252 

79  —  Decorating  Kiln  Room 253 

80  —  Shading  and  Sorting  of  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles 254 

81  —  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles 255 

82  — Packing   255 

83  —  Batch  House  in  Glass  Factory 257 

84  —  Glass  Furnace  Room 259 

85  —  Glass  Grinding  Room 263 

86  —  Glass  Factory  —  Finishing  and  Selecting 264 

87  —  The  Blast  Furnace   303 

88  —  The  Base  of  a  Blast  Furnace 304 

89  —  Protection  Against  Heat 309 

90  —  A  Health  Appliance  in  a  Modern  Steel  Works 310 


XIV 

Fig.  "  PAGE 

91  —  Gas  Helmet  312 

92  —  A  Pipe  Mill 314 

93  — Boots  and  Shoes 321 

94  — Boots  and  Shoes 322 

95  —  Boots  and   Shoes 323 

96  — Boots  and  Shoes........ 324 

97  — Boots  and  Shoes 325 

98  —  Boots  and  Shoes , 326 

99  —  Boots  and  Shoes 327 

100  —  Lead  Poisoning 382 

101  —  Silos  and  Dairy  Barns  at  Athens  (Ohio)  State  Hospital 395 


INTRODUCTION. 


Among  the  factors  which  are  causing  disaster  in  the  onward 
march  of  civilization,  there  has  been  brought  to  light,  in  the  last  half 
century,  afflictions  called  occupational  diseases,  which  appear  to  be 
due  to  attempted  or  forced  adaptations  to  unnatural  environment.  The 
present  investigation  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  been  popularly 
termed  "The  Occupational  Disease  Survey",  but  it  was  the  intention 
of  the  legislature,  which  authorized  the  investigation,  to  go  much 
deeper  than  this,  as  should  have  been  the  case,  and  endeavor  to  deter- 
mine the  underlying  causes  which  contribute  to  the  "unnecessary  sick- 
ness and  shortening  of  life,"  which  "is  a  serious  loss  and  of  grave 
concern  to  the  state  and  to  all  the  people."  Consequently  this  report 
will  be  found  to  deal  very  largely  with  industrial  hygiene  (of  the 
workplace, — not  of  the  worker's  home  and  other  outside  factors),  and 
the  extent  to  which  health-hazards  have  been  found  to  exist  in  the 
principal  industrial  processes  in  the  state.  The  prevalence  of  occupa- 
tional complaints  and  diseases  has  not  been  overlooked,  however,  as 
may  be  seen  from  a  scrutiny  of  the  context.  Inasmuch  as  the  principal 
efforts  and  most  of  the  time  available  were  directed  towards  the 
subject  of  hygiene,  it  is  well  to  say  that  the  lists  and  citations  of  occu- 
pational diseases  represent  but  a  small  part  of  those  which  actually 
exist,  and  these  lists  could  have  been  greatly  extended  had  the  principal 
investigation  been  developed  in  that  direction. 

The  plan  of  the  present  report  has  been,  first,  to  analyze  the 
available  vital  statistics  (Part  II.)  to  define  the  principles  of  indus- 
trial hygiene  which  have  served  as  guides  to  the  survey  itself  (Part 
III.),  to  designate  the  chief  industries  and  processes  of  concern  and 
to  show  their  relative  importance  in  numbers  employed  (Part  IV.)  ; 
secondly,  to  determine  the  hygienic  status  of  health-hazardous  trades 
in  the  state  through  an  investigation  of  them  by  a  corps  of  physicians 
and  hygienists  (Part  V.),  to  sum  up  and  classify  the  authentic  cases 
of  occupational  diseases  which  have  been  reported  to  the  Division 
(Part  VI.)  ;  and,  thirdly,  to  give  the  results  of  some  special  investiga- 
tions of  elemental  importance  and  remedial  character  which  have  been 
undertaken  (Part  VII.),  and  to  draw  certain  general  conclusions  (Part 
VIII.). 

In  Part  V.,  especially,  it  has  been  the  endeavor  to  show  the  short- 

xv 


XVI 

comings  in  industries,  in  trade  processes,  and  in  workers  themselves, 
which  have  contributed  to  the  figures  given  in  Parts  II.  and  VI. 

It  must  be  pointed  out  that  this  is  but  a  survey,  and  as  such  is 
necessarily  of  a  mantle  character  and  has  not  aimed  to  go  deeply  into 
any  particular  part  of  the  field.  It  has  not  touched  upon  industrial 
accidents  nor  their  prevention.  It  has  been  devoted,  principally,  to  the 
manufacturing  pursuits,  by  no  means  all  of  which  have  been  covered, 
but  the  principal  ones,  from  a  health  point  of  view,  have,  it  is  believed, 
been  included.  The  casual  reader,  however,  can  see  in  the  report 
itself  plenty  of  opportunity  for  more  investigations  and  more  intensive 
researches. 

The  report  is  not  a  description  of  industries  and  processes,  as 
sometimes  such  reports  are,  but  is  meant  to  be  an  application  of  about 
a  dozen  well  defined  health-hazards  to  workplaces  and  work  processes, 
with  subsequent  gradings  as  "good,"  "fair,"  or  "bad."  Only  enough 
description  is  given  to  define  the  various  trade  processes  when  looked 
upon  from  a  health-conservation  aspect.  The  findings  of  each  process 
are  taken  up  in  the  same  manner,  so  tfiat  the  arrangement  is  an  index 
of  itself  which  can  be  easily  followed.  The  use  of  capital  letters  has 
been  adopted  to  specify  definite  industries  or  definite  trade  processes 
which  are  described  in  the  report,  and  wherever  such  capitals  are  used 
the  reader's  attention  is  directed  to  the  index  for  'the  corresponding 
subject  matter.  Arabic  numerals  have  been  used  as  much  as  possible 
to  facilitate  reading  and  to  save  space. 

The  relationship  between  poisons  used  in  industry  and  the  symp- 
toms of  poisoning  which  develop  from  contact  with  such  poisons  is 
easy  to  comprehend,  and  there  is  no  hesitancy  in  calling  such  affections 
"occupational  diseases".  In  the  same  way,  certain  infectious,  deform- 
ities, calluses,  and  so  on,  can  be  determined  as  specifically  occupa- 
tional. But  the  relationship  between  the  health-hazards  of  industry 
and  general  diseases  is  more  or  less  indefinite.  I  have  attempted  to 
opinionate  some  of  these  relations  as  closely  as  possible,  and  as  fully 
as  consistent  with  the  findings  on  industrial  hygiene  and  our  present 
day  knowledge  of  morbid  conditions  and  the  causes  of  these  condi- 
tions. It  is  obvious  that  there  is,  and  always  will  be  room  for  difi^er- 
ences  of  opinion  along  these  lines.  However,  I  know  of  no  better 
method  than  that  which  has  been  adopted  here  to  correlate  the  indis- 
putable existence  of  preventable  diseases  and  deaths  among  occupied 
persons  on  the  one  hand — both  diseases  and  deaths  having  great  varia- 
tions according  to  occupations — rwith  the  evidence  which  industrial  mal- 
hygiene  shows  on  the  other  hand. 

The  truth  of  the  matter  is  that  occupational  diseases   are  ex- 


XVll 

ceedingly  common.  They  are,  however,  primary  diseases  and  only 
httle  attention  is  paid  to  their  symptoms  when  they  are  calling  loudest 
for  recognition  and  at  a  time  when  they  are  easy  to  cure  and  control. 
On  the  other  hand  deaths  directly  due  to  them  are  among  the  rarest 
of  happenings,  this  because  degenerative  diseases,  which  are  secondary 
(of  the  heart,  kidneys,  lungs,  etc.)  prove  to  be  the  terminal  afflictions. 
Thus,  frequency  of  urination,  in  the  case  of  the  painter,  characterizes 
turpentine  poisoning,  but  nephritis  is  the  ultimate  cause  of  death. 

Such  investigation  as  this  would  be  greatly  improved,  were  there 
extant  accepted  standards  for  all  conditions.  Such  standards  v\rould 
enable  an  investigation  not  only  to  determine  exactly,  then,  the  amount 
of  dust,  illumination,  humidity,  devitalizing  air,  temperature,  etc., 
actually  present,  but  the  terms  used  in  opinionating — "good",  "fair", 
"bad" — could  have  a  defined  significance.  Until  these  standards  are 
set  and  agreed  upon,  it  is  necessary  to  do  as  has  been  done  here — rely 
upon  the  opinions  of  qualified  but  disinterested  persons.  The  next 
logical  step  in  the  field  of  industrial  hygiene  and  occupational  diseases 
is  the  establishing  of  these  standards,  and  their  adoption  by  a  proper 
body  having  recognized  authority. 

The  immediate  survey  and  field  work  has  been  conducted  accord- 
ing to  definite  plans  by  the  persons  named  below,  exclusive  of  the 
Director.  Attention  was  given  to  securing  men  who  had  some  famil- 
iarity with  industrial  processes  as  well  as  academic,  medical  and  hos- 
pital training  and  associations.  The  principal  investigators  were 
recommended  by  health  officials  in  Ohio  cities  and  were  appointed  on 
the  authority  of  the  executive  officer  of  the  State  Board  of  Health : 

Raymond   A.   Ramsey,   A.  B.,    M.  D Columbus 

Ernest  H.   Cox,   B.  S.,  M.  D Cleveland 

Arthur    E.    Osmond,    M.  D , Cincinnati 

Roscoe  P.  Albaugh,   M.  D Columbus   and   Winchester 

Harry  L.  Rockwood,  M.  D Cleveland  and  Warrensville 

Halbert  B.  Blakey,  M.  D Columbus 

Assist.  Prof.  W.  A.  Starin,  M.  A Columbus 

John   D.   Schonwald,   M.  D Cincinnati 

Chas.  P.  Blair,  A.M.,  M.  D Peebles  and  Chicago   (111.). 

In  addition  the  following  gentlemen  devoted  time  as  specified : 

Prof.  Wm.  L.  Evans,  Ph.  D.,  directed  chemical  researches  and  participated 
in  field  investigations 

Chas.  R.  Parkinson,  M.  A.,  conducted  special  chemical  researches. 

Cullen  W.  Irish  (senior  medical  and  university  student),  and  Elmer  A. 
George,  A.  B.,  M.  D.,  assisted  in  clerical  work  and  participated  in  field  investiga- 
tions 

Prof.  Ernest  Scott,  B.  S.,  M.  D.,  cooperated  in  the  investigation  of  the  fatal 
silo  accidents  at  Athens,  Ohio. 


XVlll 


In  conclusion,  I  desire  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness  to  Dr. 
Ludvig  Hektoen,  Director,  Memorial  Institute  for  Infectious  Diseases 
and  Professor  of  Pathology  in  Rush  Medical  College,  Chicago,  for 
valuable  suggestions  and  advice  in  the  conduct  of  the  survey. 

Columbus,  Ohio,  Jan.  i,  191 5.  e.  r.  h. 


A  SURVEY  OF  INDUSTRIAL  HEALTH=HAZARDS 
AND  OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES  IN  OHIO. 


PART  I. 

HISTORICAL  NOTES. 

In  the  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health, 
1886,  page  10,  we  read  that  the  President  appointed  a  standing  com- 
mittee upon  Hygiene  of  Occupations  and  Railway  Sanitation,  with 
Dr.  John  D.  Jones,  Cincinnati,  as  chairman.  The  Second  Annual 
Report  (1887)  contains  a  five-page  article  by  Dr.  Jones  upon  ''The 
Effect  of  Occupation  Upon  the  Health  of  Individuals",  in  wdiich 
occurs  an  account  of  the  danger  to  lead-workers,  white  lead-workers. 
barrel-fillers,  file-cutters,  saw-makers  and  tool-makers,  wool  anJ 
cotton  workers,  icmployes  in  gas  works,  as  well  as  a  discussion  of 
fresh  air  and  light,  the  employment  of  women,  and  a  table  adopted 
from  Dr.  Wm.  Ogle,  of  London,  England,  showing  the  mean  annual 
death  rate  of  males  in  various  occupations. 

The  next  year  (1888)  a  most  masterly  article  in  this  field,  en- 
titled, "The  Luminous  Beam",  was  written  by  Josiah  Hartzell,  Ph.  D.^ 
Canton,  Ohio,  who  is  at  present  a  member  of  the  State  Board 
of  Health.*  This  paper  was  read  before  a  Sanitary  Convention  held 
under  the  auspices  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  at  Akron,  Ohio, 
January  25th  and  26th,  1888,  and  is  contained  in  the  Second  Annual 
Report  of  the  State  Board  of  Health,  1887.  The  opening  statement 
in  this  paper  is  as  follows: 

"All  intelligent  workers  in  behalf  of  good  health  clamor  for 
ventilation. 

"Why? 

"To  the  end  that  the  air  to  be  breathed  into  the  lungs  may  be 
abundant  in  supply  and  pure  in  quality." 

"Everyone  is  familiar  with  the  appearance  of  a  sunbeam  pierc- 
ing the  darkness  of  a  darkened  room."  With  this  sunbeam  as  the 
theme,  the  author  next  discusses,  in  a  most  able  and  interesting  man- 
ner,  the  dust   particles,   smoke  particles,  germ   growths,   and   various 


*Dr.  Hartzell   died  at  his  home   in   Canton,   Ohio,   on    Xovcmhcr   11.    1014, 
at  the  age  of  83  years. 

(n 


effusive  matters,  which  can  be  seen  to  pollute  this  luminous  beam. 
The  author  takes  up  the  subjects  of  "sawgrinder's  consumption", 
"potter's  asthma",  "brassfounder's  ague",  lead  colic,  matchworker's 
disease,  etc.,  and  states  that  in  all  these  employments  it  may  be  shown 
that  both  the  sick  and  death  rate  have  been  materially  lessened  by 
promoting  ventilation;  notably,  by  the  application  of  certain  devices 
for  the  protection  of  workmen  from  the  inhalation  of  dusi  and  harm- 
ful fumes. 

Since  the  dates  referred  to  above,  laymen  as  well  as  medical 
men  have  repeatedly  called  the  attention  of  the  public  to  the  subject 
of  industrial  hygiene  and  occupational  diseases.  Finally,  in  1913, 
or  twenty-nine  years  after  the  first  citation  above  given,  the  Legis- 
lature of  the  State  of  Ohio  passed  two  bills  as  follows:  (i)  House 
Joint  Resolution  No.  12,  (see  below)  "Authorizing  and  directing  the 
State  Board  of  Health  to  make  an  investigation  of  occupational  dis- 
eases", also  authorizing  the  Board  to  make  a  thorough  investigation 
of  industrial  hygiene;  and  (2)  an  act  "To  require  the  reporting  of 
certain  occupational  diseases"  to  the  State  Board  of  Health,  by  every 
physician  in  the  state,  attending  or  called  upon  to  visit  a  patient 
whom  he  believed  to  be  suffering  from  occupational  poisonings, 
or  or  any  other  ailment  or  disease  contracted  as  a  result  of  the 
nature  of  the  patient's  employment.  In  addition  to  the  above  two, 
which  have  laid  the  foundation  for  this  report,  there  was  passed  an 
act  "For  the  prevention  of  occupational  diseases  with  special  refer- 
ence to  lead  poisoning."  But  as  this  act  particularized  the  manufac- 
ture of  certain  lead  compounds,  it  has  eventuated  in  applying  to  but 
two  or  three  establishments  in  the  state,  and  to  the  protection  of 
some  less  than  300  employes. 

During  the  course  of  this  survey,  early  in  1914,  two  very  im- 
portant judicial  decisions  have  been  rendered,  one  by  Judge  Robert 
C.  Pugh,  of  the  Superior  Court  of  Hamilton  County,  declaring  "lead 
poisoning"  to  be  a  "personal  injury",  and  allowing  the  complainant 
an  indemnity  against  his  employer  of  $500.  The  second  decision 
was  of  much  greater  importance,  and  was  made  by  Judge  O.  J.  Cos- 
grave,  of  the  Common  Pleas  Court,  Hamilton  County,  overruling  the 
position  taken  by  the  Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio  and  declaring 
that  an  occupational  disease  is  a  personal  injury  and  therefore  should 
come  under  the  new  insurance  law  for  compensating  persons  meeting 
personal  injury  while  in  the  course  of  their  employment. 

The  funds  for  the  establishment  of  the  Survey  of  Occupational 
Diseases  became  available  May  ist,  1913.  The  investigations  began 
May  15th,  1913,  the  first  month  being  spent  in  statistical  researches, 


the  printing  of  forms,  etc.  The  factory  and  workshop  investigations 
began  June  9th,  1913,  and  have  continued  without  interruption  up  to 
the  time  of  publishing  this  report.  By  the  first  of  September,  1913, 
printed  matter,  calhng  the  attention  of  physicians  throughout  the 
state  to  the  occupational  disease  reporting  law,  and  blanks  for  re- 
porting the  same  were  mailed  to  7,500  physicians  within  the  state. 
Realizing  that  publicity  was,  and  is,  a  principal  feature  in  a  public 
health  matter  of  this  sort,  the  Division  of  Occupational  Diseases  has 
compiled  and  issued  some  twelve  pamphlets  upon  this  subject,  each 
article  being  first  printed  in  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health.  A  part  of  the  Public  Health  Exhibit  of  the  State 
Board  of  Health  has  been  given  to  the  subject  of  industrial  hygiene 
and  occupational  diseases.  In  connection  with  the  Exhibit  a  short 
lecture,  accompanied  by  stereopticon  slides,  and  moving  pictures, 
has  been  given  several  times  a  month  in  various  cities  of  the  state. 

H:  4:  4:  H<  ^ 

House  Joint  Resolution  No.  12  and  House  Bill  No.  187,  copies 
of  which  follow,  are  the  two  enabling  acts  which  authorized  the  in- 
vestigation of  occupational  diseases  by,  and  the  reporting  of  the 
same  to  the  State  Board  of  Health.  A  copy  of  the  blank  certificate 
used  for  reporting  and  the  instructions  accompanying  the  certificate 

follow : 

(House  Joint  Resolution  No.  12.) 

Laws  of  Ohio,  1913,  Vol.   103,  p.  975. 

JOINT  RESOLUTION 

Authorizing  and  directing  the  state  board  of  health  to  make  an 
investigation  of  occupational  diseases. 

Whereas,  The  employment  of  men  and  women  in  certain  occupations 
is  known  to  be  attended  with  more  than  ordinary  danger  to  health,  giving 
rise  to  what  is  known  as  "occupational  diseases",  and 

Wheeeas,  Unnecessary  sickness  and  shortening  of  life,  from  whatever 
cause,  is  a  serious  loss  and  of  grave  concern  to  the  state  and  to  all  the  people, 
and 

Whereas,  It  is  believed  to  be  possible,  by  public  education  and  by  the 
enforcement  of  proper  measures,  to  largely  prevent  unnecessary  sickness  and 
premature  death  among  employes  in  various  trades  and  occupations,  therefore, 

Be  it  resolved  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  That  the 
state  board  of  health,  is  hereby  authorized  and  directed  to  make  a  thorough 
investigation  of  the  effect  of  occupations  upon  the  health  of  those  engaged 
therein  with  special  reference  to  dust  and  dangerous  chemicals  and  gases,  to. 
insufificient  ventilation  and  lighting,  and  to  such  other  unhygenic  conditions  as 
in  the  opinion  of  said  board  may  be  specially  injurious  to  health,  and  to  report 
to  the  next  general  assembly  the  results  of  such  investigation,  with  such  recom- 


mendations   for  legislative  or  other  remedial  measures  as  it  may  deem  proper 
and  advisable. 

Be  it  further  resolved,  That  the  finance  committee  of  the  House  and  the 
Senate  be  requested  to  place  in  the  general  appropriation  bill  an  appropriation 
of  $7,000  for  the  year  1913  and  $7,000  for  the  year  1914  for  carrying  on  the 
above  work  by  the  state  board  of  health. 

C.  L.  Swain, 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Hugh  L.  Nichols, 

President  of  the  Senate. 
Adopted  February  13th,  1913. 

1918. 
Jan.  23  —  First  introduced  by  Mr.  Acker. 
Jan.  23  —  Laid  over  under  the  Rules. 
Jan.  27  —  Referred  to  Committee  on  Labor. 
Jan.  29  —  Referred  back  from  Committee  on  Labor. 
Jan.  31  —  Recommitted  to  Committee  on  Finance. 
Feb.     6  —  Reported  by  Committee  on  Finance. 
Feb.  10  — Adopted  by  House. 
Feb.  12  —  Passed  by  the  Senate.     Amended. 
Feb.  13 — -Concurred  in  bj^  House  of  Representatives. 
Feb.  25  —  Enrolled  and  signed. 
Feb.  28  —  Filed  in  office  of  Secretary  of  State. 

Laws  of  Ohio,  1913,  Vol.  103,  p.  184,   (Sections  1243-1  to  4,  G.  C.) 

(House  Bill  Xo.  187.) 

AN  ACT 

To  require  the  reporting  of  certain  occupational  diseases. 

Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio: 

Section  1.  Every  phj'sician  in  this  state  attending  on  or  called  in  to 
visit  a  patient  whom  he  believes  to  be  suffering  from  poisoning  from  lead, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  brass,  wood-alcohol,  mercury  or  their  compounds,  or  from 
anthrax,  or  from  compressed  air  illness,  or  any  other  ailment  or  disease,  con- 
tracted as  a  result  of  the  nature  of  the  patient's  employment,  shall  within 
forty-eight  hours  from  the  time  of  first  attending  such  patient  send  to  the 
state  board  of  health  a  report  stating : 

(a)  Name,  address  and  occupation  of  patient. 

(b)  Name,  address  and  business  of  employer. 

(c)  Nature  of  disease. 

(d)  Such  other  information  as  may  be  reasonably  required  by  the  state 
board  of  health. 

The  reports  herein  required  shall  be  made  on,  or  in  conformity  with,  the 
standard  schedule  blanks  hereinafter  provided  for.  The  mailing  of  the  report, 
within  the  time  required,  in  a  stamped  envelope  addrssed  to  the  office  of  the 
state  board  of  health,  shall  be  a  compliance  with  this  section. 

Section  2.  The  state  board  of  health  shall  prepare  and  furnish,  free 
of  cost,  to  the  physicians  included  in  the  preceding  section,  standard  schedule 


blanks    for   the   reports    required   under   this   act.     The    form    and    contents   of 
such  blanks  shall  be  determined  by  the  state  board  of  health. 

Section   3.     Reports   made   under  this   act   shall   not  be   evidence   of   the 

facts  therein  stated  in  any  action  arising  out  of  the  disease  therein  reported. 

Section  4.     It  shall  furthermore  be  the  duty  of  the  state  board  of  health 

to  transmit  a  copy  of  all  such  reports  of  occupational  diseases  to  the  proper 

official  having  charge  of  factory  inspection. 

C.  L.  Swain, 
Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Hugh  L.  Nichols, 
President  of  the  Senate. 
Passed  March  25,  1913. 
Approved  April  23,  1913. 

James  M.  Cox,  Governor. 

Filed  in  office  of  the  Secretary  of  State  April  24,  1913. 


WRITE    PLAINLY    WITH    INK THIS    IS    A    PERMANENT    RECORD. 

N.B.  —  Every   item    of   information    should   be   carefully    supplied.     The   exact 

statement  of  OCCUPATION  is  very  important.    Physician  should  state 

DTAGNO'SIS  in  plain  terms.    See  instructions  on  back  of  certificate. 


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(on  back  of  this  certificate  is  printed  the  matter  below). 
OHIO   STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 

Columbus. 

AN    ACT  —  To    require    the    Reporting    of    Certain    Occupational    Diseases  — 

(Passed  March  25,  1913.) 

SEcnoN  1.  Every  physician  in  this  state  attending  on  or  called  in  to 
visit  a  patient  whom  he  believes  to  be  suffering  from  poisoning  from  lead, 
phosphorus,  arsenic,  brass,  wood-alcohol,  mercury  or  their  compounds,  or  from 
anthra:!f,  or  from  compressed-air  illness,  or  any  other  ailment  or  disease,  con- 
tracted as  a  result  of  the  nature  of  the  patient's  employment  shall  within  forty- 
eight  hours  from  the  time  of  first  attending  such  patient  send  to  the  State  Board 
of  Health  a  report  stating: 

(a)  Name,  address'  and  occupation  of  patient,  (b)  Name,  address  and 
business  of  employer,  (c)  'Nature  of  disease,  (d)  Such  other  information 
as  may  be  reasonably  required  by  the  State  Board  of  Health. 

The  reports  herein  required  shall  be  made  on,  or  in  conformity  with,  the 
standard  schedule  blanks  hereinafter  provided  for.  The  mailing  of  the  report, 
within  the  time  required,  in  a  stamped  envelope  addressed  to  the  office  of  the 
State  Board  of  Health,  shall  be  a  compliance  with  this  section. 

Section  3.  -Reports  made  under  this  act  shall  not  be  evidence  of  the  facts 
therein  stated  in  any  action  arising  out  of  the  disease  therein  reported. 

AN  ACT  — For  the  Prevention  of  Occupational  Diseases  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Lead  Poisoning. 

Section  7.  Every  physician  *  *  *  finding  what  he  believes  to  be  symp- 
toms of  lead  poisoning  shall  *  *  *  within  forty-eight  hours  after  such 
examination  and  finding  *  *  *  send  a  report  thereof  in  duplicate,  one 
copy  to  the  State  Department  of  Factory  Inspection  and  one  to  the  State 
Board  of  Health  *  *  *  'pj^g  examining  physician  shall  also,  within  the  said 
forty-eight  hours,  report  such  examination  and  finding  to  the  employer.  (Passed 
April   18,   1913.) 

These  forms  are  furnished  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  should  be 
used   for  all  reports.     In  filling  out,  note  carefully  the  instructions  below. 

INSTRUCTIONS  FOR  FILLING  OUT  CERTIFICATE. 

/;/  General.  The  medical  certificate  on  the  right  hand  side  the  physician 
alone  can  furnish.  The  personal  and  statistical  particulars  on  the  left  hand 
side  must  be  secured  by  the  physician  either  from  the  patient,  or,  in  fatal  cases, 
from  the  family  preciseljr  as  for  similar  information  in  certificates  of  death 
sent  to  boards  of  health. 

Present  Occupation.  Precise  statement  of  occupation  is  very  important 
so  that  the  relative  healthfulness  of  various  pursuits  may  be  known.  It  is 
necessary  to  know  both  general  trade  or  profession  (for  example,  printer  or 
brass  worker)  and  also  the  particular  kind  of  work  or  brancli  of  the  trade  (as 
hand  compositor  ov linotype  operaiar  for  a  printer,  or  polisher  or  buffer  for  a 
brass  worker.) 

Date  of  entering  present  occnpation  is  important  to  determine  how  long 
the  worker  may  have  been  exposed  to  the  hazard  before  contracting  the  disease. 

Employer's   name,   address   and  business   are   necessary    to    ascertain    dis- 


tribution  of  occupational  diseases  by  industries,  many  trades   (e.  g.,  machinists) 
being  common  to  dififerent  industries. 

Previous  occupations  need  to  be  known,  if  possible,  because  present  illness 
may  be  due  to  a  former  rather  than  present  occupation,  and  industrial  disease 
is  frequently  a  cause  of  change  of  occupation.  Give  simply  the  name  of  each 
distinct  occupation  which  the  patient  may  have  followed,  with  the  year  he  en- 
tered and  the  year  he  left, 

Previous  Illnesses.  This  refers  either  to  previous  attacks  of  present  dis- 
ease, or  to  any  other  disease,  due  to  occupation.  All  that  is  required  is  the 
name  of  each  such  disease  or  illness  with  the  year  in  which  it  occurred.  Such 
information,  when  it  can  'be  secured,  will  show  whether  the  case  reported  is 
the  first  attack  or  not,  and  when  combined  with  statement  of  previous  occupa- 
tions, will  afford  an  outline  history  of  the  patient  as  to  occupational  disease. 

Medical  Certificate.  Only  the  last  two  items  specified  for  this  require  any 
explanation.  In  making  these  reports  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  possible 
influence  of  factors  other  than  occupation  as  causes  of  the  disease.  For  this 
reason  any  complicating  diseases  should  be  noted,  such,  for  example,  as  alsohol- 
ism  or  syphilis  in  connection  with  the  arteriosclerosis  in  cases  of  lead  or  other 
metal  poisoning.  The  possible  effect  of  other  factors,  such  as  poor  hygienic 
conditions  in  the  home,  or  other  personal  conditions,  must  be  considered,  and 
when  discoverable  should  be  noted  under  additional  facts. 

E.  F.  McCampbell,  M.  t).,  Secretary. 


PART  II. 

THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  LNDUSTRL^L  HYGIENE. 
INDUSTRIAL   VITAL    STATISTICS. 

In  order  to  avoid  needless  repetitions  in  the  description  of  In- 
dustries and  Processes  investigated  in  the  State  during  the  course 
of  the  Survey,  there  will  be  discussed  at  this  place  and  in  Part  III, 
those  factors  which  are  looked  upon  as  the  principles,  or  essential 
features,  of  industrial  hygiene,  avoiding,  as  far  as  possible,  all 
niceties  and  refinements,  and  endeavoring  to  adhere  strictly  to  the 
features  which  are  primarily  detrimental  to  health. 

For  those  who  wish  to  go  into  this  subject  more  fully,  we 
recommend  the  following  authoritative  works  and  references : 

"Diseases  of  Occupation  and  Vocational  Hygiene",  edited  by  George, M. 
Kober,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Hygiene,  Georgetown  University,  President,^  Sec- 
tion on  Hygiene  of  Occupations,  loth  International  Congress  on  Hygiene  and 
Demography,  and  Wm.  C.  Hanson,  M.  D.,  Massachusetts  State  Board  of 
Health,  Instructor  in  Harvard  University  and  Massachusetts  Institute  of  Tech- 
nology, with  the  assistance  of  various  contributors,  American  and  Foreign,  P. 
Blakiston's  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  1915  (in  print). 

"The  Modern  Factory",  George  M.  Price,  M.  D.,  formerly  Director  of 
Investigation,  X.  Y.  State  Factory  Commission,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1914,  574 
pp.,  $4.00. 

"Occupational  Diseases",  W.  Gilman  Thompson,  M.  D.,  Professor  of  Med- 
icine, Cornell  University  Medical  College,  New  York  City,  D.  Appleton  &  Co., 
1014,  734  pp.,  price  $6.00. 

"Diseases  of  Occupation",  by  Sir  Thomas  Oliver,  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co., 
New  York,  1908,  427  pp.,  price  $3.00. 

"Industrial  Poisoning",  Dr.  J.  Rambousek,  translated  from  the  German 
by  Dr.  Thomas  M.  Legge,  Edward  Arnold,  London,  England,  1913,  price  $3.50. 

"List  of  Industrial  Poisons",  by  Summerfeld  and  Fischer.  Reprinted 
from  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  'No.  100,  by  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health,  wth 
an  Industrial  Index.  Discusses  54  common  industrial  poisons,  branches  of 
industry  in  which  poisoning  occurs,  mode  of  entrance  into  the  body,  symptoms 
of  poisoning,  and  measures  for  the  protection  of  workers.  A  few  copies  of 
this  are  still  obtainable  from  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health.  Enclose  a  two- 
cent  stamp. 

"Fatigue  and  Efficiency",  by  Josephine  Goldmark,  890  pages,  Russell  Sage 
Foundation,  1912,  price  $3.50. 

"Symposium  on  Ventilation",  as  reported  in  Journal  of  Industrial  and  En- 
gineering Chemistry,  March,  1914. 

"Mortality  from  Consumption  in  Dusty  Trades",  by  Frederick  L.  Hoflfman. 
U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin,  No.  79,  Nov.,  1908. 

Mortality  from  Consumption  in  Certain  Occupations",  by  Frederick  L. 
Hoffman.    U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin,  No.  82,  May,  1909. 

9 


10 

Consult  also  any  standard  text-book  upon  Physiology  (iHowell,  Stewart, 
Hall)  and  upon  Hygiene  (Harrington,  Bergey)  for  effects  of  light,  heat, 
fatigue  and  other  hazards,  vital  statistics,  etc. 

The  first  fact  to  take  cognizance  of  in  the  inspection  of  a  work- 
place is  the  presence  or  absence  of  health-hazards. 

An  industrial  health-hazard  may  be  defined  as  any  condition  or 
manner  of  working  that  is  unnatural  to  the  physiology  of  the  human 
being  so  engaged.  This  physiology  is  adaptable  tO'  quite  wide 
variations  in  environment,  but  the  rule  holds  absolute  that  the  sub- 
jection to  conditions  which  are  unnatural  to  the  physiology  and  habit 
of  man  results  in  pathology  or  disease. 

Where  a  factory  inspector  looks  for  hazards  to  life,  limbs  and 
health,  and  is  guided  by  the  standards  of  protection  which  are  pres- 
ent and  which  must  not  fall  below  a  minimum  required  by  law,  the 
medical  hygienist  looks  for  hazards  to  health  and  longevity,  and  his 
standards  are  the  presence  or  absence  of  well  recognized  hazards  to 
health  and  the  amount  of  occupational  health  complaints  and  diseases 
to  be  found.  These  latter  he  gets  by  interviewing  and  examining 
workmen  themselves,  their  physicians,  community  health  officials, 
vital  statistics,  etc.  In  a  word,  his  business  is  to  connect  health-haz- 
ards with  diseases  and  deaths.  He  is,  then,  both  a  hygienist  and  a 
diagnostician. 

There  is  nothing  strange  or  new,  as  a  rule,  about  these  hazards, 
but  a  proper  conception  of  them  and  their  effects  is  a  necessary  pre- 
liminary to  the  reports  which  follow. 

Industrial  health-hazards  as  they  concern  the  industries  of  Ohio 
are  listed,  in  an  arrangement  easy  to  remember,  thus : 

DUST,  '  DEVITALIZED  AIR,  INACTIVITY, 

DIRT,  TEMPERATURE,  INFECTIONS, 

DAMPNESS,  FATIGUE,  POrSONlS. 

'DARKNESS, 

As  an  aftermath  to  the  above,  it  is  necessary  to  mention  in- 
dustrial stimulantism  which  is  usually  alcoholism,  coffeeism,  or  drug 
ism.  Stimulantism  is  promoted  by  subjection  to  one  or  more  of  the 
above  health-hazards;  or,  because  of  the  absence  of  good  drinking 
water;  or,  because  of  a  tradition  among  workers  in  certain  lines 
that  alcoholic  liquors  tend  to  stimulate  them  and  to  protect  them 
from  the  effects  of  poisons,  dusts,  gases,  or  hard  work  to,  which  they 
may  be  submitted;  or  to  the  fact  that  the  employers  promote  alco- 
holism among  their  workmen  by  permitting  the  drinking  of  intoxicat- 
ing liquors  while  at  work;  and,  finally,  to  the  fact  that  there  is  an 


II 

absence  of  a  welfare  attitude,  or  an  industrial  efficiency  department 
in  connection  with  an  establishment.  —  Coffeeism,  in  females,  may 
represent  alcoholism  in  males. 

The  second  most  important  feature  in  the  relationship  between 
work  and  disease  is  the  problem  of  the  worker  himself.  Some  work- 
ers are  very  much  more  susceptible  to  the  health-hazards  mentioned 
above  than  are  others,  so  much  so  that  as  hygienic  as  certain  indus- 
tries and  processes  can  possibly  be  made,  still  there  are  certain 
classes  of  persons  who  should  not  engage  in  them.  This  is  exempli- 
fied today,  in  many  instances,  as  a  matter  of  natural  selection;  for 
instance,  the  more  delicate  and  sickly  disposed  persons  do  not 
follow  the  more  fatiguing  or  heat-exposing  trades.  Unfortunately 
this  does  not  apply  so  closely  to  older  workers  who  have  been 
following  the  more  hazardous  undertakings  for  years,  and  who,  hav- 
ing become  weakened  from  various  causes,  still  endeavor  to  remain 
at  their  chosen  avocations,  irrespective  of  the  damaging  effects  upon 
the  body.  Much  of  this  question  of  the  human  factor  will  be  solved 
in  the  future  by  a  selection  of  employes  through  physical  examina- 
tions for  occupations  to  which  they  are  best  fitted.  As  an  economical 
principle  this  must  be  done  for  the  benefit  of  employer,  employe  and 
society.  Having  picked  the  proper  physically  or  mentally  capable 
person  for  the  position  at  hand,  it  is  further  necessary  to  eradicate 
health-hazards,  as  far  as  possible,  if  we  expect  to  put  a  check  upon 
unnecessary  disease  and  a  check  upon  the  shortened  span  of  life 
which  exists  among  occupied  persons  today. 

A  third  feature  requiring  discussion  is  that  of  being  able  to 
"get  used  to"  the  various  health-hazards.  This,  many  times,  is  a  de- 
fence put  up  by  employers,  and  even  by  employes  for  taking  various 
health  risks.  It  has  some  substance  when  superficially  considered. 
For  instance,  the  newly  apprenticed  barber  soon  gets  used  to  the  dis- 
comfort, pain  and  stiffness  which  first  appears  in  the  hand  and  arm 
using  the  scissors ;  the  baseball  player  soon  gets  used  to  the  muscular 
effort  required  in  throwing  the  ball  in  the  Spring  practices,  and  is 
no  longer  inconvenienced  by  soreness,  stiffness,  etc.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  may  be  said  that  fatigue  is  the  factor  concerned,  and  it  is  well 
known  that  what  proves  to  be  fatiguing  to  a  person  today  may  be 
performed  at  perfect  east  after  a  few  days  of  experience.  This  is 
because  a  physiological  regulation  has  taken  place  in  which  more 
blood,  a  better  circulation  and  nerve  control  are  established  in  the 
parts  used  and  fatigue  anti-toxin  is  developed  to  protect  the  body 
from  fatigue  toxin.  Since  this  is  a  physiological  adaptation,  it  must 
be  considered  perfectly  normal.     In  other  words,  what  was  primarily 


12 

fatig-ue,  therefore  a  health-hazard,  has,  by  a  natural  adaptation,  be- 
come no  longer  fatigue.  It  is  a  phenomenon  within  the  boundaries 
of  physiology. 

The  vital  point  is :  How  far  can  such  physiological  adaptations 
take  place  without  ultimate  damage  to  the  organism?  We  may  state 
it  as  fundamental,  that  >  outside  of  the  adaptation  cited  for  fatigue, 
no  other  health-hazard  can  be  "gotten  used  to".  We  mean  accus- 
tomed to.  in  a  physiologic,  and  therefore  a  normal  manner.  No  per- 
son can  become  habituated  to  an  existence  in  a  damp,  dark,  or  foul- 
aired  place.  Nor  again  to  the  inhalation  of  dust,  to  the  constant 
exposure  to  high  temperatures,  nor  to  sudden  changes  in  temper- 
atures. The  physiologic  mechanisms  of  the  human  body  are  not 
capable  of  adapting  themselves  to  the  conservation  of  health  and  vi- 
tality in  the  continued  presence  of  such  hazards. 

The  subjection  to  poisons  is  absolutely  incompatible  with  health 
and  a  normal  span  of  life.  It  is  commonly  thought,  for  instance, 
that  a  person  can  soon  become  habituated  to  the  inhalation  of  ben- 
zine fumes,  so  that  the  intoxicating  effects,  producing  giddiness,  diz- 
ziness, a  feeling  of  elation  and  loquaciousness,  experienced  during 
the  first  week  or  so  of  exposure,  but  which,  as  a  rule,  pass  off  there- 
after, have  been  "gotten,  used  to".  This  is  an  erroneous  idea.  Apply 
the  same  argument  to  alcohol.  Simply  because  it  may  take  more  to 
get  the  chronic  toper  intoxicated  is  no  proof  that  he  has  become 
habituated  because  of  a  physiological  re-enforcement.  He  has  simply 
become  tolerant.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  toleration  and  the 
physiologic  normal.  Toleration  lasts  only  so  long  as  the  extra  pow- 
ers, with  which  all  vital  organs  are  endowed,  can  meet  and  compen- 
sate for  the  oppression.  For  instance,  it  has  been  shown  that  as  little 
as  I /24th  part  of  the  normal  amount  of  kidney  substance  will  main- 
tain life  in  the  individual,  and,  in  a  similar  way,  other  organs  and 
parts  of  the  body  are  superiorly  equipped.  But  the  utilization  of 
physiological  functions  to  their  limits  of  toleration  is  abnormal  and 
unnatural,  and  a  transgression  of  natural  laws  is  bound  to  result  in 
disaster.  This  is  just  as  true  of  physiology  as  it  is  of  physics.  Hence 
toleration  of  unnatural  environmental  conditions  which  many  persons 
look  upon  as  "getting  used  to"  situations  is  untenable,  and  will  finally 
result  in  disease,  perhaps  in  invalidism,  and  most  certainly  in  im- 
timely  death. 

This  misconception  of  the  ability  of  the  human  being  to  become 
accustomed  to  health-hazards,  such  as  the  ten  fundamental  ones 
above  cited,  is  responsible  for  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  prevent- 
able sickness  and  mortality  shown  in  statistics  herewith : 


13 

(i)  In  Ohio,  in  the  year  1913,  there  were  68,378  deaths.  Over 
half  of  these  would  not  bear  scrutiny  as  either  timely  or  justifiable. 
Most  of  the  questionable  deaths  occurred  in  adult  life  and  before  70 
years  of  age:  •  ' 

QUESTIONABLE  DEATHS. 

Lock  Jaw    67  TOTAL         CIRCULATORY 

Tuberculosis    (Total)    ........  6,555          DISEASES     11,358 

Cancer   (Total)    4,049  Lung     Diseases     (other    than 

Rheumatism     226          Tuberculosis)     6,850 

Anemia    240       Bright's    Disease    (Total) 3,958 

Alcoholism    815       Skin  Diseases  212 

Nervous  Diseases   6,882  External      Causes      (violence, 

ORGANIC     HEART      DIS-  etc.)     6,266 

EASE   8,907 

As  against  these  there  were  but  822  deaths  charged  to  OLD 
AGE,  as  such. 

(2)  Diseases  of  the  Circulation  and  particularly  Organic 
Heart  Disease  are  causes  of  death  pre-eminent  in  adult  life.  The 
following  table  shows,  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  the  increase  in  death 
rates  per  100,000  population  from  these  causes : 


DEATH 

RATES. 

All  causes 

combined 

Circulatory 

Oi 

<'ganic  Heart 

Year. 

{per  1,000) 

Diseases. 

Disease. 

1909  

12.76 

155.95 

108.26 

1910  

13.76 

185.03 
206.95 

126.63 

1911  

13.09 

157.32 

1912  

13.34 

227.80 

177.80 

(3)  Deaths  occurring  under  70  years  of  age  from  Circulatory 
or  Heart  Diseases  should  be  considered  preventable  in  the  vast  ma- 
jority of  instances.  In  Ohio,  in  1912,  over  ^  of  all  deaths  were  due 
to  Circulatory  Diseases  and  %  of  all  deaths  were  due  to  Organic 
Heart  Disease  alone.  As  a  cause  of  death  Tuberculosis  has  been  al- 
most doubly  outstripped  by  these  chronic  degenerative  diseases,  58% 
of  which  have  occurred  before  70  years  of  age,  and  20%  of  which 
have  occurred  before  -50  years  of  age.  If  the  classification  could  en- 
able us  to  separate  out  the  "farmers",  these  rates  for  the  balance  of 
the  people  of  the  state  would  be  very  much  higher. 

A  "Study  of  the  Handicapped",  made  by  the  Council  of  Social 
Agencies  and  The  Hospital  Social  Service  in  Cincinnati,  states,  "Car- 
diacs  (i.  e.  persons  sufifering  from  heart  disease)   constitute  at  once 


14 

the  largest  single  class  and  the  one  that  presents  the  greatest  diffi- 
culties. Few  of  them,  because,  among  other  reasons,  their  handicap 
is  not  evident,  at  present  obtain  suitable  employment.  They  are, 
therefore,  constantly  relapsing  into  incapacity  for  work  and  need 
hospital  treatment." 

(4)  An  analysis  of  the  General  Mortality  Statistics  for  the 
registration  area  of  the  United  States  shows  the  following  for  the 
census  year  1909: 


MORTALITY   AMON^    OCCUPIED    MALES 

in  Agricultural 

Pursuits.  ~  Callings. 


Those  in  Agricultural  ^TmdJs^ and 


Deaths       from       preventable 

causes  (6/7  are  diseases)...     Ti  A%    of    all    deaths 43.0%  of  all  deaths. 

Deaths      from      degenerative 

diseases     (under    70    years 

of  age)    26.5%    of   all    deaths .31.0%  of  all  deaths. 

Total    deaths    after    70    years 

of  age    35.9%    of   all   deaths 13.4%  of  all  deaths. 

In  the  above  "Occupied  Males"  includes  professional  persons, 
officials,  proprietors,  those  in  domestic  and  personal  services,  as  well 
as  those  we  term  real  workers,  viz.,  in  trade  and  transportation,  man- 
ufacturing and  mechanical  pursuits,  mines,  quarries,  etc. 

(5)  The  relationship  between  different  callings  and  a  given 
disease,  such  as  tuberculosis,  can  be  fairly  satisfactorily  determined. 
The  following  table  furnishes  an  example.  Compare  the  first  column 
with  the  second  column,  and  note  that  housing,  habits,  dietetics,  etc., 
cut  no  figure,  at  least  with  the  first  four  comparisons : 

TUBERCULOSIS   DEATH    RATE. 

Quarrymen    and   miners 9.   %  Stonecutters     (indoor    work).  29.  % 

Carpenters     10 .   %  Painters 19 .  % 

Iron  and  steel  workers 16.   %  Brassworkers    31.  % 

Domestics     19.   %  Stenographers     39.  % 

Farmers,    planters    and    over-  95   out  of   100  callings   8.0  to  43.  % 

seers    ^-^^c 

In  this  connection  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  issued  a  pam- 
phlet entitled,  "Consumption  and  Preventable  Deaths  in  American 
Occupations",  which  shows  many  other  ratings  for  trades  and 
callings. 

(6)  Pulmonary  Tuberculosis  is  a  cause  of  death  which  con- 
cerns adults  much  more  than  children.     Reliable  statistics   in  Ohio 


15 

are  only  available  since  1909.  It  must  be  remembered  that  many 
Ohio  persons  suffering  with  tuberculosis  go  to  western  states  where 
many  of  them  die.  Because  of  this  morbidity  migration  in  the  case 
of  this  disease,  the  mortality  rates  of  states  such  as  Ohio  are  not  as 
high  as  they  should  be.  Reports  in  Ohio  show  that  there  are  seven 
cases  of  tuberculosis  to  every  death.  Hence,  there  are  over  35,000 
living  cases  in  the  state  at  present.  The  rates  for  the  last  five  years 
in  Ohio  are,  per  100,000  estimated  population,  as  follows : 

Year.  No.  Deaths.  No.  Deaths. 

1909  5,805  121.91 

1910    6,176  129.70 

1911 5,992  123.76 

1912  5,679  115.80 

1913 5,479  110.35 

The  table  shows  that  the  disease  as  a  cause  of  death  is  gradually 
decreasing.  But  the  table  below  shows  to  what  extent  young  people 
bear  the  brunt  of  the  plague: 

DEATHS    FROM    PULMONARY    TUBERCULOSIS,    STATE    OF    OHIO,    I909-I912. 

Years  of  Age.  No.  of  Deaths. 

15-19 1,698 

20-24 3,156 

25-29   3,228 

30-34   2,810 

35-39 2,478 

40-44 1,8'67 

45-49  1,543 

50-54   1,276 

55-59 1 ,  108 

60  and  over 3,187 

(7)  The  following  is  abstracted  from  a  paper  entitled,  "A 
Study  of  Causes  of  Tuberculosis",  by  Roy  T.  Nichols,  Department 
of  Hygiene,  Western  Reserve  University.  The  study  was  made  in 
Cleveland,  and  was  devoted  to  the  year  1912: 

3,247  cases  of  tuberculosis  were  registered  in   Cleveland  in  1912.     Total 

number  was  probably  10%  higher. 
70%  were  estimated  as  charity  cases. 
"It  is  doubtful  whether  more  than  15%  could  be  attributed  to  an  inherited 

tendency." 
4   months   represents   the   average   stay   of   each   patient    in   an   institution 

(based  upon  250  cases  studied). 

Cost  for  the  care  of  each  patient  averaged  $1.25  per  day. 


i6 

The  report  concludes  as  follows : 

"Is  it  not  time  that  we  not  only  recognize  as  one  must,  that  tuberculosis 
is  not  the  inevitable  lot  of  certain  races,  or  the  inherited  lot  of  'Certain  fam- 
ilies, but  that  it  is  largely  due  to  the  effect  of  the  industrial  and  living  condi- 
tions, and  that  we  must  therefore  expend  large  amounts  not  only  in  combating 
the  disease  by  sanitary  instruction  and  segregation,  but  by  appropriations  for 
the  safeguarding  of  workers  in  certain  industries  and  for  the  improving  of 
housing  conditions?  If  any  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  this  report,  it  is 
that  all  efforts  to  combat  the  rapid  spread  of  tuberculosis  must  fail  unless  it 
reaches  down  to  the  economic  basis  of  life.  This  report  shows  conclusively 
that  men  are  succumbing  to  tuberculosis,  not  because  they  are  destined  to  or 
because  they  are  ignorant  or  because  they  are  willing  to  take  bigger  chances 
than  other  people,  but  because  they  are  the  slaves  of  our  industrial  system  that 
decrees  this  man  who  toils  for  10  or  more  hours  a  day  in  dust-laden,  over- 
heated air,  is  the  man  with  wages  so  small  that  he  can  buy  for  himself  and 
his  family  only  a  few  small  close  rooms  for  their  place  of  habitation,  rather 
than  a  place  that  has  the  recreative  gifts  of  sunlight  and  fresh  air.  When 
we  awaken  to  the  fact  that  such  industrial  conditions  and  such  living  condi- 
tions must  not  exist,  not  only  because  they  are  not  humane  or  decent,  but 
because  society  cannot  afford  thern,  because  they  too  rapidly  manufacture  these 
helpless  derelicts  that  must  be  supported  by  charity  until  death  relieves  them 
and  us,  we  will  have  gone  far  towards  removing  the  cause  of  tuberculosis." 

(8)  The  following  Table,  based  upon  U.  S.  Vital  Statistics 
reports,  compares  the  Proprietor  and  Professional  Class  (column  A.) 
with  the  Working  Class  (column  B.)  in  respect  to  the  prevalence  of 
six  preventable  causes  of  death. .  The  rates  represent  the  number  of 
deaths  from  each  cause  out  of  every  loo  deaths: 

A.  B. 

Cause  of  Death.  Death  Rate.      Death  Rate. 

Tuberculosis  8.22  17.53 

Accidents  and  injuries 5.20  11.85 

Pneumonia    •  6.89  8.48 

Suicide  2.13  2.76      . 

Typhoid  fever  1.88  2.35 

Accidental  poisoning .43  .78 

All  preventable  causes 24. 75  43 . 75 

In  this  connection  the  State  Board  of  Health  has  a  pamphlet 
which  explains  more  fully  these  relationships. 

The  above  tables,  we  believe,  will  show  the  serious  economical 
questions  which  are  involved. 


PART  III. 

INDUSTRIAL  HAZARDS. 

We  will  next  take  up  the  individual  health-hazard  and  discuss 
the  elemental  principles  concerned. 

DUST.  —  Dust  may  be  inhaled,  or  ingested,  or  affect  the  skin, 
the  eyes  and  the  ear  canals.  The  daily  subjection  to  dust,  for  more 
than  brief  intervals  at  a  time,  is  always  damaging.     The  skin  and 


Fig.  1.     Dry  Grinding  and  Mixing  of  Ingredients. 

Inclosed  ball-mill  in  use  in  a  porcelain  enamel  works,  equipped  with  exhaust, 
dust-tight  doors  and  collecting  drawer.    Adaptable  in  many  plants. 

the  eyes  may  become  physiologically  inured  to  it,  but  not  so  with  the 
internal  organs.  The  least  harmful  dusts  are  those  arising  from  the 
natural  earth  itself,  such  as  the  farmer  is  subjected  to,  although 
there  are  many  exceptions  to  this  in  the  case  of  alkali,  sandy,  or 
stony  earths,  etc.  White  flour  and  starch  appear  to  be  practically 
harmless  to  the  normal  person,  soapstone  dust  and  talc  may  be  placed 
next  in  order,  but  a  tuberculously-inclined  person  subject  to  these, 

2     O.  D.  ^7 


It 


if  they  do  no  more  than  irritate  the  nose  and  throat  and  promote 
coughing,  is  almost  certain  to  see  an  increment  in  his  disease.  Next 
in  order  of  harmfulness  come  wood  dust,  bran  dust,  coal  dust,  clay 
dust,  ore  dust,  mineral  dust  and  stone  dust.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
organic  dusts  are  the  least  harmful.  Dusts  in  general  produce  a 
chronic  catarrh  of  the  respiratory  and  digestive  organs.  This  leads 
to  a  fibrosis,  which  is  the  same  process  that  is  gradually  brought 
about  by  old  age.  These  catarrhs  and  fibroses  result  in  lowered  re- 
sistance of  the  damaged  parts,  and  invite  secondary  diseases,  which 
are  usually  the  cause  of  death. 


F"iG.  2.     Metal  Polishing. 
Ideal  exhaust  system   for  dust  in  a  polishing  department.     Plenty  of  light. 


All  diseases  of  the  lungs,  due  to  dust,  are  called  pnenmonoconi- 
osis  (lung-dust-disease)  ;  iron  dust,  produces  a  condition  called  sider- 
osis;  sand,  flint  and  stone,  chalcicosis  and  silicosis;  coal  dust,  anthra- 
cosis;  cotton-fibre  dust,  byssinosis;  clay  dust,  ahiminosis;  tobacco 
dust,  tabacosis;  etc.  Fibrous  tissue  is  formed  around  these  particles 
in  the  lungs,  destroying  the  function  of  respiration  in  such  parts, 
and  resulting,  in  the  end,  in  a  condition  called  phthisis,  which  is 
.usually  complicated  by  the  presence  of  the  bacillus  tuberculosis,  which 
is  enabled  to  propagate  because  of  the  shutting  off  of  the  blood 
supply  by  the  fibrous  tissue.     Two-thirds  of  a  pint  of  coal  dust  has 


If 


20 


been  found  in  the  lungs  of  a  former  coal  miner.  One-third  of  the 
weight  of  the  lungs  of  a  rock-driller  has  been  found  to  consist  of 
rock  dust.  Probably  the  most  harmful  dust  of  all,  with  the  exception 
of  poisonous  dust,  is  emery  dust,  which  is  composed  of  exceedingly 
hard,  crystalline,  sharp  particles ;  next  to  this  comes  sand  or  sandstone 
dust,  to  which  workers  are  subjected  in  surfacing,  polishing  and 
crushing  stone,  in  sandblasting,  etc. 

No  person  should  work  in  a  dusty  atmosphere.  Either  by  me- 
chanical means,  wet  processes,  and  modification  of  processes,  or  by 
personal  hygiene,  as  respirators,  etc.,  dust  can  be  kept  out  of  the 
.human  system.  Dry  sweeping  during  work  hours  is  a  most  vicious 
practice.  \^acuum  cleaning  not  only  for  floors,  but  in  many  dusty 
processes,  is  especially  recommended.  In  dust  mixing  processes 
much  of  the  material  can  be  handled  by  vacuum  pipes  instead  of 
scoop  shovels. 

Civilized  man  enjoys  no  immunity  over  the  original  or  native 
man  in  this  respect,  for  whom  dust  was  not  intended.      ' 

DIRT.  —  Dirt  is  put  in  as  a  health-hazard,  not  because  to  the 
cultured  it  is  undesirable,  but  because  dirt  and  disease  co-exist.  Dirt 
accumulating*  from  trade  processes  becomes  dust.  A  dirty  place  is 
the  first  place  in  which  one  is  inclined  to  spit,  hence  dirt  accumula- 


Ftg.  4.     Clay  Stoctc  Hot-?f.. 

An   electric  motor  car,  upon  which   is  iitted  a  weighing  apparatus,  gathers   the 
clays  from  the  various  bins. 


21 


tions  are  very  liable  to  harbor  disease  germs.  Dirt  often  contains 
poisons  accumulating  from  manufacturing  processes,  which  dry  out 
and  become  dust.    Vacuum  cleaning  is  again  called  attention  to. 

We  wish  to  give  "Dirt",  however,  a  broader  scope.  Disorderly 
accumulations  of  materials,  by-products  and  waste  products  should 
be  removed  from  workplaces  because  they  have  a  sub-conscious  de- 
teriorating efifect  upon  morals,  upon  the  inclination  and  the  ability  to 
work,  and  upon  the  observance  of  health  standards  beyond  the  work- 
place, to  say  nothing  of  the  hindrance  to  production  itself.  The  in- 
sistence upon  a  clean  and  orderly  place  in  which  to  work  is  funda- 
mental from  three  points  of  view  —  physiologic,  psychologic  and 
productive  capacity,  or  output. 

DARKNESS.  —  Continual    subjection    to    this    health-hazard    is 

^universally   acknowledged  by  practically   all  persons,   as   well  as   hy- 

gienists,  as,  incompatible  with  health.    The  best  light  in  which  to  work 


Fig.  5. 


Pupil  of  eye   dilated  to  let  in  plenty 
of  light  when  illumination  is  dim. 


Same    pupil    contracted    to    shut    out 
excessive   light. 


Both  Conditions  Mean  Eyestrain  and  Are  Very  Fatiguing. 


is,  of  course,  daylight  —  the  only  modification  of  this  being  protec- 
tion from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  particularly  for  sedentary  or 
confined  workers.  After  this  a  good  quality  of  artificial  light  does 
not  appear  to  be  detrimental  to  health.  Illuminating  engineers  claim, 
and  certainly,  from  a'  physiologic  point  of  view,  with  very  good  rea- 
son, that  more  than  half  of  workplaces  are  improperly  lighted;  also 
too  expensively  lighted,  considering  candle-power.  In  other  words, 
there  is  a  vast  amount  of  importance  to  be  given  to  lampshades,  re- 
flectors, globes,  etc.,  as  well  as  to  positions.     A  flickering  light,  or  a 


22 


dim  lig-ht  can  be  just  as  fatiguing,  from  its  effects  upon  the  human 
eyes,  as  the  most  laborious  work.  On  the  other  hand,  brilliancy  is 
equally  as  dangerous.  We  see  the  extremes  of  this  in  some  of  the 
furnace  and  melting  processes,  where  eyes  are  subjected  to  intense 
heat,  as  well  as  light,  thus  predisposing  to  ageing  (cataracts,  retinitis, 
conjunctivitis,  etc.)  Extremes  are  seen  in  the  case  of  welding  by 
the  various  types  of  blowpipes  and  electric  methods  now  in  vogue,  in 
which  not  oply  the  eyes  require  to  be  protected  by  alternate  layers  of 


Fig.   6.     Poor  Illujiination. 

More  light  in  the  e3'es  than  on  the  work.  Sharp  shadows  and  much  glare 
from  the  polished  metal.  Discomfort  to  the  worker;  loss  to  his  employer. 
Danger  of  accidents.  Many  factories  are  too  expensively,  but  very  poorly 
lighted. 

colored  glass,  but  even  the  skin,  to  prevent  the  consequence  of  can- 
cer. The  eye  also  suffers  from  contrasts  of  light  and  shadows,  as 
are  seen  particularly  in  rooms  where  furnace  glares  are  mostly  de- 
pended upon  for  lighting.  Such  conditions,  of  course,  produce  in- 
accuracies of  execution,  and  lead  to  accidents,  as  well  as  curtailment 


23 

of  production.  Nystagmus,  or  dancing  pupils,  so  commonly  seen 
among  coal  miners,  has  been  recently  shown  to  be  due  essentially  to 
poor  lighting.  The  eyes  are  greatly  fatigued  by  looking  down  con- 
stantly upon  bright  objects  or  reflecting  surfaces.  For  instance, 
many  persons  suffer  from  headache  when  they  look  upon  an  expanse 
of  river  or  lake  water  while  the  sun  is  shining.  The  retina  of  the 
human  eye  is  normally  adapted  to  high-lights  (the  sky)  which  come 
above  the  center  of  the  field  of  vision,  and  to  dark  tones  and  colors 
in  the  lower  field  of  vision.  Looking  down  upon  white  reflecting 
surfaces,  as  upon  paper,  in  ironing  white  goods,  etc.,  is  the  cause  of 


Fig.  7.    Well  Lighted  Factory  Room. 
A  factor  in  safety,  health  and  production. 


considerable  industrial  headache,  much  of  which  can  be  prevented  by 
the  wearing  of  eye  shades  or  the  use  of  dark  glasses. 

DAMPNESS.  —  Again,  it  is  obvious  to  most  persons  that  work- 
ing continually  in  a  damp  place,  particularly  if  within  doors,  is  in- 
imical to  health.  By  dampness  we  mean  not  only  moist,  but  wet 
places,  steamy  atmospheres,  or  air  in  which  the  humidity  is  main- 
tained at  a  higher  point  than  65°.  If,  to  such  conditions,  changes  in 
temperature,  either  up  or  down  from  68°  take  place,  the  risk  to 
health  becomes  greater.  Those  whose  work  necessitates  exposure  to 
water  and  dampness   should  not  be  required  to  do  sedentary  work 


24 

unless  temperature  is  carefully  controlled,  and  recreation  periods 
are  arranged  for.  They  should  be  provided  with  rubber  boots,  rub- 
ber aprons,  etc.,  in  addition  to  all  mechanical  means  devisable  to  re- 
move water  and  steam.  Where  other  health-hazards  are  associated 
with  this  feature  of  dampness  and  moisture,  workers  should  have 
bathing  facilities,  such  as  the  shower  bath,  and  obviously,  such  necess- 
ities as  lockers  for  street  clothing.  Some  establishments  wisely  pro- 
vide drying  rooms  in  which  to  hang  damp  working  clothes. 


fr 


Fjg.  8.     Dark  Wall  Shades  Affect  Illumination. 

Each  of  these  two  h'ttle  rooms  receives  the  same  light.     Dark  walls  absorbed 

most  of  the  light  in  left-hand  room. 


By  far  the  vast  majority  of  workshops  and  factories,  however, 
are  afflicted  with  the  opposite  condition,  DRYNESS.  An  experiment 
made  in  almost  any  factory  or  workshop  room,'  office  or  store,  dur- 
ing the  months  of  artificial  heating  will  show  that  the  relative  humid- 
ity, instead  of  ranging  betvi^en  60°  and  70°  for  a  temperature  of  68°, 
is  very  much  below  this.  This  applies  to  nearly  all  steam-heated, 
hot-water  heated,  or  hot-air  heated  quarters.  This  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  also  promotes  disease,  first  evinced  as  an  irritation  of  the 
nose  and  throat,  the  glands  of  which   are  forced  to  produce  extra 


25 

moisture  in  order  to  enable  these  parts  to  perform  their  functions. 
In  time  acute  colds  and  contagions  are  easily  acquired.  Then  there 
are  chronic  coughs,  and,  from  this  on,  a  large  variety  of  disease  con- 
ditions are  possible.  Humidifiers,  air  exchangers,  and  especially  fans 
to  keep  the  air  in  motion  are  urgently  needed  almost  everywhere  in 
indoor  workrooms. 

The  readings  of  the  wet-and-dry-bulb  thermometer  should  reg- 
ulate these  conditions.  This  is  a  most  valuable  instrument,  and 
should  be  placed  in  almost  every  place  of  human  habitation,  especially 
mill-rooms,  work-rooms,  offices,  stores,  school-rooms,  etc.,  in  the 
state.  It  records  "sensible  temperature",  as  well  as  actual  temper- 
ature, and  its  humidity  readings  will  surprise,  many  times,  as  well 
as  explain  why  rooms  seem  stulty  and  hot,  or  cold  and  damp  when 
the  ordinary  thermometer  is  recording  normal !  There  are  several 
forms  of  the  instrument.  The  sling  psychrometer  is  best,  but  aiiy  of 
the  stationary  wall  forms  will  suffice  if  the  air  is  put  in  motion,  as 
by  fanning  in  front  of  them  before  taking  a  reading.  The  adoption 
of  cloth  windows  in  the  lower  frames  of  the  ordinary  window  ap- 
pears to  be  capable  of  solving  this  question  to  a  large  extent.  It  has 
been  shown  that  a  medium  grade  muslin  cloth  of  light  color  retains 
heat  much  better  than  glass  and  permits  an  exchange  of  air  and 
moisture  almost  unhampered,  while  light  is.  if  anything,  better 
dil+used. 


I'lli.    !'.       LL.W     pKt:i'.\R.\TI()N     I.N     FOITKRY    WoRXS. 

Shnwiiiii  liltcr  i)ri,-.>;s  voom  oi  mcHlel  construction  in  an  art  tile  plant. 


26 


Fig.  10.     The  Wet-and-Dry-Bulb  Thermometer. 
This  instrument  gives  relative  humidit}^  and  '"sensible"  temperature.     The  most 
important    health    indicator   made.      A    fan    should    be    turned    upon    it    to 
put   the   air   in   motion   while   taking   a   reading. 


DEVITALIZING  AIR. — Bad  air  conditions  in  work  places 
may  be  due  to  (i)  deoxidation  (presence  of  flames,  furnaces),  (2) 
contamination  (escaping  gases,  vapors,  fumes),  (3)  pollution  (dust 
smoke,  moisture  particles  from  other  persons'  breaths),  (4)  unnat- 
ural temperature-humidity  relations,  and  (5)  stagnation.  Of  these, 
stagnation  probably  does  the  most  damage  to  the  largest  nuinber  of 
persons,  since  quiet,  still,  "dead"  air  fails  to "  promote  evaporations 
from  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and  to  stimulate  the  sensory  nerve  end- 
ings located  in  the  skin,  both  of  which  are  necessary  to  maintain  a 
good  circulation  of  the  blood.  This  good  circulation  is  especially 
needed  for  a  large  class  of  workers  while  engage  1  in  their  various 
trade  processes.  The  essential  difiference  betw  een  indoor  and  outdoor 
air  is  that  the  former  is  usually  still  quiet,  or  "dead",  while  the  latter 
is  in  motion,  is  fresh,  and  "alive".     If  to  stagnation  are  added  any  of 


27 

the  other   four  conditions   above  mentioned,  as  is  often   the  case   in 
work  places,  the  danger  to  health  is  much  increased. 

Probably,  abnormal  temperature-humidity  relations  are  next  in 
hazard  to  stagnation  as  deleterious  factors,  although  the  physiology 
of  the  human  organism  can-  adapt  itself  to  quite  wide  variations  in 
these  if  the  air  can  be  kept  in  motion.  A  person  can  exist  (at  least 
experimentally)  in  comparative  comfort  in  a  closed-up  closet  for  a 
considerable  time  if  these  last  mentioned  features  —  temperature 
68°,  humidity  (relative)  60°,  and  a  motion  of  the  air,  as  by  fans  — 
are  provided  for.  It  has  been  practically  established  that  it  is  not 
the  amount  of  oxygen  which  persons  use  up  in  breathing,  nor  the 


Fig.   11.     Smoke  Nuisance. 
No  fresh  air  possible  within  work  places  in, this  district. 

amount  of  carbon-dioxide  they  exhale,  nor  the  emanations  from  the 
human  body  (except  moisture  particles  from  the  coughing,  spitting 
or  sneezing  of  diseased  persons  in  crowded  quarters)  which  count 
for  aught  in  vitiating  the  air,  except  under  the  most  unusual  conditions 
of  crowding  or  confinement. 

There  is  a  difference  between  the  air  of  many  work  quarters, 
however,  than  that  of  homes,  schools,  offices,  stores,  etc.  In  shops, 
factories,  mills,  and  many  other  establishments  there  are  the  ever- 
present  air  vitiators  such  as  free  flames  without  vents,  gas  heaters, 
salamanders,  furnaces,  gases  from  tanks  and  vats,  and  chemical 
vapors  which  are  not  confined  or  led  away  from  the  breathing  at- 
mosphere. To  these  are  multitudes  of  wage-earners  exposed  as  well 
as   to  air   stagnation   and  temperature-humidity    factors.      Practically 


28 


all  such  vitiation  can  be  corrected  by  various  types  of  confining  cup- 
boards and  enclosures,  and  by  artificial  ventilating  systems,  air-agita- 
tors, suction  fans,  etc. 

Of   all    factors   which   tend   to   promote  high   death   rates,   par- 
ticularly from  the  preventable  causes,  such  as  tuberculosis,  pneumonia, 


Fig.   12.    To  Convert  an  Ordinary  Sash  Window  into  a  Ventilator. 

Insert  a  board  under  bottom  sash.  It  will  be  found  that  fresh  air  from 
outside  will  find  its  way  into  the  room  as  indicated,  with  very  little,  if  any. 
draft.     This  is  a  useful  method  for  many  workshops. 

bronchitis,  and  the  like,  atmosphere  which  is  not  that  supplied  by  na- 
ture, is  paramount.  We  might  say,  in  a  word,  that  if  the  out-door 
air  could  be  breathed  by  workers  in  all  lines  of*  activity  throughout 
the  work  hours  of  the  day,  the  preventable,  degenerative  and  occupa- 


29 


tional  diseases  would  be  almost  entirely  done  away  with.  In  this 
respect,  the  person  in  a  clerical  position  is  just  as  much  concerned  as 
the  operative  in  a  factory  or  mill. 


Fig.  12.    The  Elements  of  Exhaust  Ventilation. 

To  collect  the  dust,  vapors,  or  fumes  which  may  arise  from  work  processes 
a  hood  with  stack  is  provided.  The  exhaust  may  be  created  by  draft  from  a 
stove  pipe  (as  shown),  or  a  steam  jet,  or  exhaust  fan,  or  connection  to  a 
chimney   of  sufficient  height. 

HEAT.  —  The  exposure  to  heat  produces  prostration,  heat  ex- 
haustion, muscular  cramps  and  acute  colic  when  the  effects  are  ex- 
treme, while  in  the  long  run  it  produces  anemia,  catarrh,  rheumatism, 
Bright's  disease,  skin  eruptions,  gradual  fibrosis  and  premature  old 
age.  Its  effect  upon  the  eyes  has  been  commented  upon  under  the 
head  of  DARKNESS.  Many  persons  who  are  exposed  to  heat 
should  wear  glasses  as  much  for  protection  against  the  heat  as  against 
the  unnatural  light  which  accompanies  it.  The  raising  of  the  body 
temperature,  thermic  fever,  which  takes  place  more  or  less  constantly 
among  heat-exposed  workers,  is  accompanied  by  the  production  and 
accmnulation  of  definite  poisons  or  toxins  within  the  body,  which  are 


3* 


Fig.   14.     Air-Conditioning  Apparatus  for  Factory  Ventilation. 

This  machine  washes,  strains,  humidifies,  heats  and  cools  the  air  as  well  as 
forces  its  circulation.  It  maintains  the  dew  point  within  1°  of  a  fixed  point  for 
three  floors  in  a  large  factory  building. 

responsible  for  the  effects  above  noted.  Hence  he  who  shows  effects 
of  exposure  to  heat  hasi  been  occupationally  poisoned  although  the 
poison  in  this  case  has  been  elaborated  within  his  own  system.  If 
combined  with  moisture,  the  effects  upon  health  are  still  worse,  since 
the  failure  of  opportunity  for  the  evaporation  of  the  normal  perspi- 
ration on  the  surface  of  the  body  is  interfered  with,  thus  disturbing, 
seriously,  the  heat-regulating  mechanism. 

In  practically  all  trade-processes  heat  can  be  kept  away  from 
workmen,  or  means  can  be  adopted  to  nullify  its  effects.  The  adop- 
tion of  modern  appliances  for  handling  and  transporting  heated  mate- 
rials has  done  much  in  certain  industries  to  solve  this  question.  In 
addition,  the  use  of  shields  and  screens;  of  asbestos  coverings;  of 
water-cooled  furnace  doors;  and  particularly  of  airblasts,  sufficiently 


31 

strong  to  blow  back  the  heat  currents,  or,  in  some  cases,  to  blow  upon 
the  exposed  workman ;  the  adoption  of  powerful  electric  fans ;  of 
water  sprays;  and  so  on,  have  done  much  toward  helping  it.  Finally, 
we  would  mention  particularly  the  short  work  day,  and  the  frequent 
rest  period,  also  the  wearing  of  garpients  arranged  to  protect  from 
the  heat,  but  at  the  same  time  permit  of  evaporation.  Then,  one  of 
the  most  important  necessities  for  the  use  of  all  heat-exposed  work- 
ers is  the  shower  bath.     There  is  a  good  physiologic  reason  for  this, 


Fig.   15.     Electric  Fan. 

Portable  ventilating  fan  shown  at  "C"  with  fan  motor  completely  covered 
and  "A"  with  shields  removed.  These  fans  are  36"  in  diameter  and  are  used 
where  men  work  in  high  temperatures,  and  can  be  moved  to  suit  conditions 
and  obtain  the  best  results. 


which  in  plain  terms  may  be  stated  to  be  that  it  tones  up  the  pores 
(sweat  glands)  of  the  skin,  decreases  the  perspiration,  and  re-estab- 
lishes the  circulation  equally  throughout  the  system.  We  may  add 
to  this  that  it  cleanses  the  person  and  adds  to  the  psychological  effect 
which  comes  with  self-respect,  which  in  turn  promotes  health.  Such 
bathing    facilities   will    cut   down    rheumatism,   lumbago,   stiff   joints, 


32 

colds,  sore  throat,  etc.,  to  a  marked  degree.  It  must  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  a  person  whose  back  muscles  are  full  of  "heat-toxins",  which 
have  not  been  property  removed  by  a  good  circulation,  will,  on  the 
next  day,  when  he  returns  to  work,  and  upon  slight  straining  effort, 
develop  an  acute  "kink"  in  the  back  muscles,  which  becomes  a  lum- 
bago that  is  as  disabling,  and  takes  as  long  to  cure  in  many  cases,  as 
a  broken  hip.  In  connection  with  the  shower  bath,  we  would  men- 
tion the  necessity  of  providing,  not  a  cold  stone  or  cement  floor  upon 
which  to  step,  but  wooden  treads  or  slats.     Also^  all  workers  exposed 


Fig.  16.     The  Rest  Interval  for  Hot  Process  Workers. 

Protection  against  heat.  Men  enjoyinj  a  fifteen  minute  rest  between 
working  spells  at  hot  processes.  These  men  are  relieved  in  this  manner  every 
fifteen  minutes  while  working  in  excessive  heat. 


to  this  hazard  should,  by  all  means,  have  a  double  set  of  lockers,  one 
for  street  clothes,  and  one  for  work  clothes,  this  latter  arranged 
so  that  warm,  dry  air  may  dry  out  the  clothing  between  work  periods. 
COLD.  — ■  Working  in  the  cold  cannot  be  said  to  be  dangerous 
to  health.  One  or  two  qualifications  should  be  made :  the  worker 
should  get  enough  exercis ;  to  stimulate  circulation,  he  should  be 
properly  clothed,  and  should  not  be  subjected  to  alternations  of  cold 
exposures  with  heat  exposures.  This  is  where  the  damage  to  health 
is  done  in  the  case  of  most  workers  so  exposed.  Human  beings  work 
in  the  frigid  zones  and  keep  perfect  health.     Combinations,  however. 


33 

of  cold  with  hazards  such  as  dampness,  darkness  and  vitiated  air,  are, 
of  course,  decidedly  injurious. 

A  bad  feature  in  many  hot  processes  is  that  workers  are  exposed 
to  all  manner  of  cold  drafts,  especially  during  rest  intervals  and  in 
the  winter  season.  In  this  over-heated  state  they  often  step  out  of 
doors  and  sit  down  upon  benches  without  putting  on  additional  cloth- 
ing. Oftentimes  they  are  compelled  to  go  to  an  outside  privy  or 
through  cold  halls  and  area  ways  to  toilets  located  perhaps  in  damp 
cold  basements. 


Fig.  17.    Sanitary  Provisions  in  a  Modern  Steel  Works. 

In  the  rear  are  shower  baths  and,  around  sides,  lockers  with  fronts  per- 
mitting air  circulation.  (Shower)  baths  are  a  physiological  necessity  to  all 
workers  in  hot  processes. 


FATIGUE.  —  Fatigue  is  one  of  the  most  common  causes  of 
occupational  disability.*  This  is  a  prime  cause  of  the  fact  that  bodily 
development  in  factory  classes  remains  inferior  to  that  in  other  social 
classes.  Fatigue  is  defined  as  loss  of  irritability  and  contractility 
brought  on  by  functional  activity.  The  sensation  of  fatigue  is  due  to 
the  accumulation  of  waste  products  within  the  system  called  fatigue 
poisons   (definite  chemical  substances)   and  fatigue  toxins.     The  poi- 

*  "So  tired"  is  an  expression  which  sliould  never  be  heard  from  any  worker 
at  the  close  of  his  or  her  work  day.  It  signifies  exhaustion.  —  {Sir  Thomas 
Oliver.) 

3    Q.  P. 


.^'I 


sons  are  acidic  in  character.  A  fatigued  muscle  is  acid  in  reaction, 
while  one  at  rest  is  alkaline.  Of  the  poisons,  leucomaines  are  one  type 
and  are  similar  in  action  to  ptomaines  obtained  from  putrid  meats. 
The  presence  of  such  substances  is  easily  demonstrated,  as  for  in- 
stance, in  the  dog  experiment  in  which  a  few  cubic  centimeters  of 
blood  removed  from  the  veins  of  a  dog,  which  has  been  run  until 
fatigued,  and  then  injected  into  another  dog,  not  previously  exercised, 
within  a  few  moments  causes  symptoms  of  fatigue  to  appear  in  the 
second  animal ;  even  paralyzing  effects  and,  finally,  death  may  follow 
after  a  period  of  extreme  exhaustion.     There  are  many  other  ways 


Fig.  18.     Sorting  and  Marking  in  a  Laundry. 
Note  stools  without  back  rests. — A  fatigue  factor  among  sedentary  workers. 


of  demonstrating  the  presence  of  this  fatigue  substance.  Fatigue  poi- 
sons do  not  accumulate  in  the  system  if  time  intervals  are  sufficient 
for  the  circulation  to  counteract,  and  remove  them  between  muscular 
efforts.  These  symptoms,  when  they  appear,  are  usually  not  more 
prominent  in  the  particular  muscles  or  parts  used  than  throughout 
the  system  in  general.  The  brain,  which  is  the  source  of  motive 
power,  always  suffers  in  fatigue,  no  matter  what  part  of  the  body  is 
overworked. 

Workers  who  begin  a  new  process  at  first   feel  the  symptoms 
of   fatigue  very  quickly,  but  gradually  the  period  of  continuous  ap- 


35 

plication  is  extended  until,  as  we  have  explained,  the  person  has  be- 
come used  to  the  work.  This  is  more  than  the  matter  of  the  establish- 
ment of  a  good  circulation  of  blood  to  the  parts  used,  and  the  train- 
ing of  nerve-paths.  It  seems  in  part  to  be  due  to  an  anti-toxin  carried 
within  the  blood  which  destroys  the  fatigue  toxin  at  its  source  in  the 
muscle.  "Getting  in  training"  is  but  the  working  up  of  this  fatigue 
antitoxin. 

Fatigue  symptoms  should  never  be  permitted  to  exist  in  indus- 
tries. These  are,  in  a  minor  way,  tiredness,  sore  muscles,  stiff  joints, 
aches  and  pains,  etc.,  while  in  a  more  severe  form  we  have  such  signs 


Fig.  1.9.     Ideal  Working  Conditions. 

Sedentary  work  showing  swivel  chairs  with  backs  and  foot  rests.  Also 
lamps  well  placed  and  shaded.  All  are  important  factors  against  fatigue.  Note 
machine  parts  protected  to  prevent  accidents. 


as  muscular  c/amps,  obstinate  lumbago,  wry  neck,  neuritis,  neuralgia, 
and  "occupational  neuroses",  in  which  any  attempt  to  return  to  the 
regular  work  results  in  spasms  of  the  muscles  used,  accompanied 
by  soreness,  constant  aches  and  pains,  trembling,  gradual  emaciation 
and  partial  paralysis  of  the  parts.  In  time,  ligaments  weaken  so  that 
flat  feet  occur  (perhaps  with  varicose  veins,  eczema  and  ulcers), 
round  shoulders,  bowed  backs,  and  sunken  necks.  Internal  organs 
drop  downward  (especially  the  kidneys  and  the  female  organs),  caus- 
ing much  chronic  invalidism.     Such   signs   are   usually  accompanied 


36 

with  a  mental  condition  of  anxiety  which  is  out  of  all  apparent  pro- 
portions to  what  can  be  seen,  and  along  with  headache  and  constipation 
make  up  the  disease  condition  known  as  "neurasthenia."  Neurasthe- 
nia is  practically  always  occupational.  In  females  ''hysteria"  is  a  fre- 
quent associate.  The  next  stage  is  "nervous  breakdown".  Many 
persons,  of  slightly  unsound  condition  to  begin  with,  develop  a  "fa- 
tigue psychosis",  that  is,  insanity  which  may  be  sudden  and  violent, 
or  just  a  gradual  deterioration  characterized  as  "played  out",  "no 
good  any  more",  "can't  make  his  day's  wages",  etc.  Our  hospitals, 
dispensaries,  charities,  various  institutions  and  asylums  are  crowded 
full  of  these  classes  of  persons.  About  90%  of  them  are  over  40 
years  of  age,  which  make  a  significant  contrast  with  the  age-group 
figures  for  wage-earners  in  manufacturing  industries,  about  90%  of 
whom  appear  to  be  under  40  years  of  age. 

Fatigue  which  affects  the  steady  worker  causes  anemia,  enlarge- 
ment of  the  heart,  increased  blood  pressure,  circulatory  diseases,  kid- 
ney disease,  and  neurasthenia  or  nervous  exhaustion.  This  latter  is 
a  very  common  complaint  of  the  working  classes.  Chronic  fatigue 
predisposes  to  weakness  and  paralysis  of  special  parts,  and  to  ner- 
vous breakdowns.  The  general  fibrosis  of  all  organs  and  parts  en- 
croaches upon  the  reserve  forces  of  these  organs  and  parts.  Prema- 
ture old  age  is  a  consequence.  During  the  course  of  any  of  these 
chronic  affections,  which  are  usually  progressive  when  once  incited, 
the  person  is  predisposed  to  all  manner  of  acute  diseases,  one  of 
which,  in  the  end,  is  finally  signed  upon  the  death  certificate  as  the 
■cause  of  demise. 

Loud  noises  fatigue  the  ears,  and  are  a  common  cause  of  partial 
or  complete  deafness.  Cotton  stuffed  in  the  ears  during  work,  and 
removed  immediately  afterwards  greatly  limits  this  deafness. 

Young  persons,  particularly  those  under  18  years  of  age,  are  per- 
manently and  more  seriously  damaged  by  the  poisons  and  toxins  of 
fatigue  than  are  those  of  maturity.  This  is  because  during  the  age- 
period  from  about  15  to  18  in  boys,  and  about  14  to  17  in  girls,  a 
marked  increase  in  growth  should  normally  take  place  (greater  than 
any  other  period  of  life,  except  the  first  two  years  of  infancy),  and, 
there  is  also,  not  only  growth  in  stature,  but  a  concrescence  or  "grow- 
ing together"  for  firm  union  for  adult  life  of  the  muscles,  bones,  ten- 
dons, etc.,  which  are  concerned  in  voluntary  acts.  Furthermore,  the 
cartilaginous  parts  and  junctions,  are,  during  this  age,  finally  replaced 
by  bony  matter.  During  this  age-period,  then,  energies  must  espec- 
ially be  conserved  for  the  functions  of  growth.  Where  fatigue  sub- 
stances are  allowed  to  factor,  growth  is  stunted,  concrescence  is  inter- 


:\7 


fered  with,  and  reserve  forces  so  dissipated  that  there  results  de- 
formities, weakened  constitutions,  and  a  greatly  increased  liability  to 
the  inception  of  chronic  diseases,  particularly  of  tuberculosis  and  or- 
ganic heart  disease. 


Fig.  20.    The  Normal  Position  of  the  Feet  in  Standing  or  Walking. 

The  toes  should  be  pointed  almost  straight  to  the  front,  which  gives  strength 
to  the  arch  of  the  foot,  while  the  walker  covers  more  ground  for  given 
muscular  effort. 


The  fact  that  young  persons'  fingers  are  nimble,  and  their  actions 
quick  should  not  be  taken  advantage  of  by  allowing  disastrous  ex- 
haustion to  lessen  their  vitality  at  this  most  important  period  of  life. 


Fig.  21.     Flat  Feet. 

This  results  from  incorrect  standing  or  walking,  or  prolonged  standing  (especially 
during  youth  or  during  a  weakened  condition). 

Particularly  does  this  apply  to  the  permitting  of  piece-work,  and 
monotonous  or  steady-straining  processes.  Also  to  night  work,  and 
to  weekly  alternation  between  night  work  and  day  work.     If  we  add 


38 

to  these  deleterious  fatigue  toxins  the  poisons  which  are  produced  by 
exposure  to  heat,  the  disastrous  results  are  us.ually  more  than  double. 
Any  who  doubt  this  may  consult  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports. 

In  a  word,  fatigue,  or  a  tired  feeling,  means  for  all  persons: 
Take  a  rest !  The  sensation  is  simply  nature's  warning.  Rest,  at 
least  during  the  daytime,  very  rarely  implies  a  cessation  of  voluntary 
activities  altogether,  but  implies  a  change  of  work  or  process  for  a 
brief  interval,  by  which  strain  is  relieved  and  recreation  is  brought 
about.  The  entire  cessation  of. voluntary  activities,  which  normally 
occurs  in  the  adult  for  a  period  of  about  eight  hours  during  the  night, 
is  essential  for  the  recreation  of  the  vital  organs,  which,  though  in 
constant  activity  from  the  day  of  birth  until  the  day  of  death,  require 
about  one-third  of  the  time  each  twenty-four  hours  to  compensate  for 
the  extra  duties  imposed  upon  them  by  the  acts  of  voluntary  activity. 

In  summing  up  the  chief  factors  which  cause  fatigue  in  the 
steady  workers  —  who,  as  we  have  shown  above,  should  never  show 
symptoms  of  exhaustion  —  there  are  (i)  laborious  work,  (2)  long- 
hours,  (3)  piece-work,  (4)  speeding  up,  (5)  monotony,  (6)  constant 
standing.  (Constant  standing  upon  cement,  stone  or  brick  floors 
should  be  provided  against  by  supplying  wood  platforms  or  even 
plain  boards  upon  which  to  stand.  Correct  methods  of  standing  — 
the  toes  and  heels  parallel  —  should  be  taught).  (7)  constant  strain, 
(8)  chairs  or  stools  without  backs,  (9)  faulty  postures,  (10)  jarring 
processes,  (11)  pressing  or  holding  objects  against  the  body,  (12) 
eyestrain,  (13)  loud  noises,  (14)  irregular  hours  for  sleep,  and  finally, 
(15)  the  absence  of  work  variation  or  periods  of  relaxation  and  re- 
creation, which,  in  case  of  females,  means,  also,  rest  rooms. 

INACTIVITY.  —  For  a  period  of  about  15  to  16  hours  of  the 
day,  the  average  normal  adult  may  remain  awake  and  exercise  for 
the  most  of  the  time  his  physical  and  mental  ecjuipments,  provided 
there  is  diversity  of  application.  This  is  essential  to  keep  these  parts 
in  normal  tone,  but  more  especially  to  aid  in  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  and  lymph,  so  that  food  products  are  properly  assimilated,  and 
waste  products  are  properly  eliminated.  If  such  opportunity  for  ex- 
ercising the  voluntary  functions  is  not  given,  there  is  a  tendency  for 
assimilating  powers  and  processes,  to  surpass  the  powers  of  distribu- 
tion and  elimination.  In  common  parlance  this  "sluggishness"  pro- 
duces self-poisoning.  In  reality  gouty  and  other  poisons  accumulate, 
and  produce  damage  to  blood  vessels  and  organs,  not  very  dissimilar 
to  the  effects  of  fatigue-poisons. 

Those  persons  who  do  sedentary  work,  whether  at  desks,  at  ma- 
chines, or  at  benches  all  day,  are,  in  a  way,  doubly  poisoning  them- 


39 

selves,  first,  through  fatigue-poisons,  due  to  the  over-use  of  certain 
parts  without  rest  intervals,  and  secondly,  to  the  accumiulation  of 
poisons  from  a  sluggish  circulation  due  to  general  muscular,  and 
respiratory  inactivity.  Where  monotony  in  work  is  a  factor,  it  is 
physiologically  necessary  that  workers  be  taught,  and  allowed  to  work 
at  at  least  two  different  processes.  Frequent  physical  exercise  is 
necessary  to  maintain  health. 


Fig.  22.     Exercise  for  the  Office  Force. 

Once   in    the   morning   and   once   in   the   afternoon.      A   great    stimulant    for   all 

inactive  workers. 


GERMS  AND  INFECTION. —  Vast  numbers  of  persons  are 
exposed  through  methods  and  environments  of  work  to  infections, 
blood  poisonings  and  communicable  diseases.  In  the  first  place,  ( i ) 
over-crowding  in  workshops  enhances  the  spread  of  all  communicable 
diseases.  (2)  the  common  use  of  towels,  cups,  wash  basins,  clothes, 
etc.,  spreads  diphtheria,  colds,  tonsilitis,  pneumonia,  consumption, 
syphilis,  trachoma  (granulated  eyelids),  and  any  of  the  more  strictly 
contagious  diseases. 

Other  sources  of  industrial  infections  are  (3)  improper  closets, 
(4)  spitting  upon  the  floors,  (5)  sweeping  dtu-ing  work  hours,  or  by 
dry  methods,  (6)  absence  of  cus])idors,  (y)  the  handling  of  infectious 
materials    (hides,  wiping  rags,  wool,  oil,  etc.),    (8)   the  handling  or 


40 


Fig.  23.     Two  Health  Protectors  in  Factory  Life. 

The   model   cuspidor   for   factory   use,   showing   "backstop"   and   floor   protector, 
all  easily  cleaned.    The  garbage  can  is  a  sentinel  for  order  and  cleanliness. 


Fig.  24.     First-Aid  Kit. 

!Each  department  of  the  plant  should  be  supplied  with  a  "First-Aid  in  Case  of 
Accident"  kit,  which  is  conveniently  kept  in  a  glass  jar. 


41 

mouthing  of  articles  just  previously  handled  or  mouthed  by  another 
person,  etc. 

Infections  are  also  invited  through  (9)  frequent  trivial  injuries, 
(10)  flying  particles,  (11)  cracking  or  fissuring  of  the  skin,  eczemas, 
etc.,  due  to  the  careless  use  of  solutions,  gases  and  vapors.  Also  (12) 
through  calluses,  which,  when  incised  or  punctured,  as  by  slivers, 
etc.,  have  very  poor  resistance  to  infection  and  subsequent  blood 
•poisoning,  and  to  lock-jaw;  hence,  in  this  connection,  the  great  value 
of  "first-aid"  to  take  care  of  the  most  trivial  injuries,  foreign  par- 
ticles in  the  eyes,  etc.,  and  (13)  a  surgical  emergency  room,  and,  for 


Fig.  25.     Needed  in  All  Work  Places. 
Emergency  equipment  for  first-aid  to  the  injured.     Prevents  blood  poisoning. 


larger  establishments,  the  presence  of  (14)  a  trained  nurse,  (15)  a 
supervising  physician  and  surgeon,  and  (16)  hospital  arrangements. 
Smallpox,  plague  and  other  diseases  have  been  spread  by  (17) 
the  use  of  wiping  rags,  waste,  etc.,  which,  unsterilized,  have  come 
from  almost  anywhere.  (18)  Typhoid  fever  has  proved  a  menace  to 
thousands  of  workers  in  this  state ;  in  one  place  where  strike- 
breakers were  confined  behind  factory  enclosures  without  proper  san- 
itary arrangements ;  in'  another  where  the  offal  from  a  quarry  dis- 
trict, which  was  almost  without  sanitary  provisions,  eventually 
polluted    the    water    supply;    etc.      Trachoma    has    proven    a    serious 


>42 

menace  to  factory  districts,  mostly  (19)  through  housing  conditions, 
and  the  question  at  once  arises  whether  employers  have  not  a  right 
to  demand  certain  standards  in  this  direction,  in  return  for  the  value 
of  the  money  which  is  paid  in  wages. 

•Hookworm  disease  is  liable  to  develop  (20)  among  miners,  tun- 
nel workers,  brick  makers,  quarrymen,  construction-camp  workers, 
lumber  and  saw-mill  hands,  where  no  closets  or  privies  are  provided, 
and  especially  in  seasons  of  the  year  which  permit  persons  to  wear 
open  or  "holey"  shoes,  or  go  barefooted,  or  handle  the  earth  directly. 
Obviously,  typhoid  fever  is  constantly  to  be  feared  under  such  con- 
ditions, with  the  added  risk  which  contaminated  water  gives.  Work- 
ers about  animals  (21)  are  liable  to  anthrax,  glanders,  cow-pox,  milk 
sickness,  lumpy  jaw,  hoof-and-mouth  disease,  catarrhal  jaundice 
(Weil's  disease),  pemphigus,  erysipelas  and  lock-jaw. 

A  medical  supervision  of  workers  in  all  places  employing  persons 
working  in  close  quarters  is  essential.  It  will  prevent  much  "indus- 
trial" tuberculosis.  This  should  include  (22)  the  physical  examination 
of  new  employes,  and  careful  thought  given  to  the  selection  of  work- 
ers from  a  health  point  of  view.  Further  factors  that  will  tend  to 
keep  down  infections  are  the  supplying  of  (23)  gloves,  (24)  goggles, 
and    (25)    the   posting   of   placards   of   instruction. 

POISONS.  —  Workers  in  poisons  are  very  liable  to  develop 
specific  occupational  diseases  due  to  the  particular  poison  to  which 
they  may  be  exposed.  The  extent  to  which  poisons  are  used  in  the, 
industries  is  enormous,  and  new  industries  utilize  the  same  poisons 
in  new  and  dangerous  methods.  As  health-hazards,  no  poisons  need 
to  be  dispensed  with  in  industry,  but  what  is  necessary  is  that  in 
their  use  as  much  attention  be  given  to-  their  effects  upon  health,  both 
acute  and  chronic,  as  to  the  methods  and  purposes  for  which  they  are 
used. 

The  more  common  poisons  used  in  the  State  of  Ohio  are  about  in 
order  of  their  frequency  of  use  and  their  liability  to  produce  occupa- 
tional disease :  lead,  benzine  and  benzol  (naphtha,  petrol,  gasoline, 
etc.),  turpentine  and  similar  dryers,  brass  or  zinc  in  the  form  of 
fumes ;  acids,  alkalis,  wood  alcohol,  analin  oil,  carbon  bisulphide, 
antimony,  illuminating  and  fuel  gas,  sulphurated  hydrogen,  arsenic, 
phosphorus  and  mercury.  (The  State  Board  of  Health  has  a  special 
pamphlet  entitled  "Industrial  Poisons"  which  covers  all  of  these  poi- 
sons and  many  more.  After  naming  and  describing  the  poisons,  the 
industries  in  which  each  is  commonly  used  are  given,  and,  finally,  a 
concise  description  of  the  symptoms  produced,  as  well  as  methods  of 
preventing  and  treating  such  cases  of  poisoning.) 


43 

Occupational  poisonings  occur  because  the  amount  of  risk  is 
not  appreciated  by  either  employer  or  employe.  Also,  because  of  the 
physiologically  impossible  assumption  that  a  person  can  "get  used  to" 
a  poison.  No  metallic  or  inorganic  poison  can  be  absorbed  in  the 
human  system  without  evidences  of  "damage  resulting.  In  fact,  in 
this  respect,  arsenic  and  phosphorus  are  apparently  the  least  harmful 
of  all  because  they  have,  to  a  limited  extent,  alterative  powers,  if 
assimilated  in  very  minute  quantities.  Even  this  much  cannot  be  said 
for  any  of  the  other  poisons  mentioned  in  the  above  list.     None  can 


Fig.  26.     Lead  Poisoxing. 

The  black  line  due  to  lead  is  well  shown  on  the  teeth, 
marked  in  the  gum  margins. 


It  was  also  well 


be  physiologically  handled  by  the  human  body.     Their  preseiue  in  the 
body  is  incompatible  zvith  the  maintenance  of  health. 

A  great  mistake  which  is  made  in  the  conception  of  poisons  is 
the  question  of  mistaking  toleration  for  halbituation.  The  fallacy  of 
this  has  been  fully  described  in  the  beginning  of  this  chapter.     In  a 


^i 


Fig.  27.     Paralysis  from  Lead  Poisoning. 

This  man,  aged  22,  a  kiln  room  laborer  in  a  lead-works,  was  admitted  to  Cincinnati 
Hospital  in  the  Spring  of  1914,  with  acute  lead  poisoning.  He  rapidly  recovered  and 
was  strongly  advised  upon  discharge  to  keep  away  from  any  occupation  dealing  with  lead. 
In  spite  of  this  he  returned  to  his  former  work.  After  6  weeks  he  returned  to  the  Hos- 
pital   (June  6,   1914)    again   suffering  from   lead  poisoning  and  paraylsis  of  both  wrists. 


-ISii     -<^'*   .ia!iiL-  _ 


45 


G.  o- 


^-  ?*  ^ 


13     r; 


v>     ^ 


t-" 


tr     ^ 


„.     ? 


46 

word,  toleration  at  least  implies  utilization  of  reserve  force,  and  this 
always  results  in  early  decrease  in  capacity,  with  gradual  fibrosis  of 
the  organs  and  parts,  similar  to  that  seen  in  old  age.  In  addition  to 
fibrosis,  poisons  invariably  cause  protoplasmic  changes  of  destructive 
character  in  the  vital  organs. 

Occupational  poisonings  will  not  cease  until  the  following  fac- 
tors have  been  met  and  overcome:  (i)  keeping  workers  in  ignorance 
of  poisons  used,  (2)  misbranding  of  poisons,  (3)  fancy  branding  of 
articles  containing  poisons,  (4)  lack  of  instructions,  (5)  disregard  of 
instructions,   (6)   wrongful  instructions,   (7)  harmful  regulations,   (8) 


Fig.  29.     ^I.\kixg  Rubber  Gloves. 

Dipping  Room.    Benzine  vats  are  covered  between  operations.     Floor  is  exhaust- 
vented  and  fresh  air  forced  in  continually  from  above. 


absence  of  medical  supervision,  (9)  and  of  mechanical  health  appli- 
ances. Further,  fio)  the  eating-at-work  or  in  workrooms,  (11)  lack 
of  personal  cleanliness.  —  even  the  wearing  of  mustaches  or  beards 
are  vital  factors  with  some  poisons.  Finally,  there  must  be  con- 
sidered, for  given  poisons,  the  use  of  (12)  gloves,  (tt,)  respirators, 
C14)  proper  clothes,  (15)  lockers  in  outside  rooms.  (16)  good  wash- 
ing facilities,  (17)  water  closets.  (t8)  eating  places,  and  the  develop- 
■ment  of  inventions  along  the  lines  of  dg)  confining  poisons,  and  pos- 
sibly of  the    (20)    substitution   of  certain  poisons,  by  non-poisonous. 


^7 


even  though,  perhaps,  more  expensive  substances.     This  latter,  we  be- 
lieve, is  rarely,  if  ever,  necessary. 

One  feature,  if  borne  in  mind,  would  do  away  with  nine-tenths 
of  all  industrial  poisoning,  and  would  seem  easy  of  accomplishment. 
This  is  to  keep  poisons  from  entering  the  system  by  way  of  the  nose 
or  mouth.  The  wearing  of  a  respirator  would  seem  to  accomplish 
this  as  far  as  inhalation  is  concerned,  but  the  question  of  preventing 


Fig.  30.    The  Meltzer  Artificial  Respiration  Apparatus. 

(Recommended  by  the  Committee  on  Resuscitation  from  Mine  Gases  of 
the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines  which  disapproved  of  the  puhnotor  and  other 
apparatus.    See  Technical  Paper  77,  U.  'S.  Bureau  of  Mines). 

The  pharyngeal  tube  method.  P.  T.,  pharyngeal  tube ;  R.  V.,  respiratory 
valve;  turning  to  the  right  'brings  an  inspiration  and  to  the  left  an  expiration; 
S.  v.,  safety  valve  (bottle  should  be  shorter  and  wider)  ;  S.  T.,  stomach  tube 
(this  may  be  omitted  provided  sufficient  pressure  is  made  on  the  abdomen  to 
prevent  gaseous  distension  of  the  stomach)  ;  B.,  bellows,  (an  oxygen  tank 
may  be  substituted). 


the  ingress  of  poisons  to  the  mouth,  as  from  licking  the  lips,  or  using 
the  uncleansed  hands  to  put  tobacco,  or  foods,  or  drinks  into  the 
mouth,  seems  to  be  almost  impossible  of  accomplishment,  hence  the 
necessity  of  curtailing  the  amount  of  poisons  by  mechanical  means 
to  the  utmost  extent.  In  the  end,  a  periodic  examination  of  all  work- 
ers in  poisons  is  necessary  in  order  to  rid  these  industries  of  those 
who  are  unusually  susceptible,  or  who  cannot  be  made,  or  taught,  to 


48 


follow  instructions.  The  rotation  of  workers  is  another  admirable 
means  of  meeting  the  situation,  but  this  cannot  be  intelligently  con- 
trolled without  periodic  medical  examinations. 

There  are  some  further  health-hasards  in  industries,  some  of 
which  we  will  briefly  mention.  Working  in  COMPRESSED  AIR, 
that  is,  in  caissons,  is  one  of  these.  So  far  as  we  know,  very  little  work 
of  this  character  was  performed  in  the  State  during  the  course  of  our 


Fig.  31.    The  Meltzer  Artificial  Respiration  Apparatus. 

Face  mask  method.  A  well-fitting  face  mask  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
pharyngeal  tube  shown  in  figure  3.  M.,  mask;  Infl.,  inflation  tube  for  inflating 
rubber  ring  around  rim  of  mask;  R.  V.,  respiratory  valve;  S.  V.,  safety  valve. 
Insufflation  pressure  provided  by  oxygen  tank.  Heavy  weights  should  be  placed 
upon  the  abdomen.  The  pressure  may  be  reinforced  by  a  belt,  or  a  belt  press- 
ing downward  on  a  broad  board  may  replace  the  weight.  The  belt  alone  is 
insufficient.  The  tongue  should  be  pulled  well  forward  by  means  of  a  proper 
tongue  forceps. 

survey.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  in  bridge-building,  tunneling,  (partic- 
ularly under  water),  and  sometimes  in  the -construction  of  buildings, 
it  is  necessary  that  the  work  be  done  under  compressed-air.  On  the 
top,  or  in  connection  'with  all  such  caissons  within  which  men  have 
to  work,  should  be  provided  air-locks  within  which  workmen  should 
be  required  to  spend  from  15  to  30  minutes  at  the  close  of  each  work 
period   in  order  to  undergo   depression  before  coming  out  into  the 


49 

normal  air-pressure,  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of  air  bubbles 
(air  emboH)  within  the  blood  vessels,  which,  being  carried  to  the 
vital  organs,  particularly  the  lungs,  spinal  cord  and  the  brain,  pro- 
duce the  symptoms'  called  "the  chokes",  "the  bends"  and  "the  stag- 
gers". Such  symptoms  often  result  fatally,  sometimes  within  a  few 
minutes. 

To  a  certain  extent  FOUL  ODORS  may  be  considered  health- 
hazards,  because  of  the  nauseating  effect  which  they  tend  to  produce. 


Fig.  32.     Sanitary  Drinking  Fountains. 

Plenty  of  good  water,  properly  cooled,  in  the  workplace  tends  to  limit 
alcoholism  outside  of  the  workplace. 

Nausea  is  usually  accompanied  by  an  excessive  secretion  of  gastric 
juice,  which,  in  time,  if  continued,  produces  mucous  gastritis.  The 
condition  especially  invites  alcoholism,  but  even  by  itself  would  result 
in  emaciation  and  debility  through  loss  of  appetite  and  of  the  digestive 
powers.  However,  this  is  one  subject  in  which  the  personal  factor 
is  uppermost.  What  is  nauseating  to  one  may  prove  quite  inoffensive 
to  another.  To  this  question  of  odors,  workers  will  usually  select 
themselves  of  their  own  accord,  before  any  material  damage  is  done 
4    o;  D. 


50 

to  the  system.  In  this  connection  we  would  mention  especially  the 
furnace  odors'  so  frequently  complained  of  by  workers  around  oil- 
blast  furnaces,  particularly  when  these  are  being  started  up  as  in 
the  early  morning  of  each  day.  For  these  persons,  proper  ventila- 
tion is  essential. 

Oftentimes  indoor  closets  are  installed  in  workrooms,  without 
proper  ventilation  arrangements,  perhaps  only  partially  partitioned 
off  with  no  ceiling  over  the  same,  so  that  odors  escape  and  permeate 
the  w^orkroom.  Some  of  the  loudest  complaints  of  the  work  people 
have  been  in  connection  with  this  type  of  an  indoor  closet.  If  much 
used,  it  is  a  constant  source  of  irritation  to  the  workers  and  produc- 
tive of  much  bad  feeling  towards  managements. 

The  acquisition  of  VENEREAL  DISEASES  through  industry 
is  possible  through  the  common  handling  or  mouthing  of  articles; 
through  a  lack  of  supervision  where  both  sexes  work  together;  and, 
through  the  unmind fulness  of  employers  of  generally  immoral  sur- 
roundings, such,  for  instance,  as  are  created  by  questionable  pictures, 
"wall  waitings',,  loose  language,  etc. 

The  subject  of  ALCOHOLISAI,  as  an  industrial  health-hazard, 
both  as  cause,  and  effect,  has  been  discussed  in  an  early  part  of 
this  section  under  the  head  of  "Stimulantism." 


PART  IV. 

THE  INVESTIGATION  OF  INDUSTRIES   M  OHIO. 

The  plan  has  been  to  make  a  hygienic  survey  of  the  principal 
manufacturing  industries  of  the  state.  An  idea  of  their  type,  extent 
and  number  of  persons  concerned  can  be  obtained  from  the  U.  S. 
Census  of  Manufactures.  Such  a  classification,  however,  is  not 
well  adapted  to  a  hygienic  survey,  since  a  great  mass  of  wage-earners 
may  be  employed  in  comparatively  non-hazardous  callings.  Hence 
it  is  more  proper  to  speak  of  health-hazardous  processes  than  health- 
hazardous   industries. 

For  our  purposes,  industries  have  been  divided  into  six  classes  as 
follows : 

( I  )      Those  using  poisons  as  a  chief  hazard. 

(2)  Dusty  industries. 

(3)  Those  in  which  fatigue  and  inactivity  are  the  chief  hazards. 
^4)      Those  in  which  heat,  cold,  moisture,  or  dampness  predom- 
inate. 

(5)  Those  in  which  there  is  a  more  than  usual  liability  to  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases. 

(6)  Industries  having  miscellaneous  hazards  not  included  above. 
About  half  of  the  wage-earners  of  the  state  in  manufacturing 

pursuits  have  been  included  in  the  industries  investigated.  In  some 
instances  strikes  and  business  depressions  interfered  with  the  survey 
in  certain  lines  of  industry,  but.  outside  of  coal  mining,  not  to  any 
extent.  The  survey  has  not  included  non-manufacturing  pursuits, 
such  as  general  construction  work,  mercantile  and  trade  pursuits, 
transportation,  agricultural,  animal,  forestry  and  personal  service 
pursuits,  and  those  callings  which  engage  professional,  semi-profes- 
sional and  clerical  persons.  There  are  a  number  of  manufacturing 
industries  and  processes,  of  course,  which  the  survey  was  unable  to 
get  to  because  of  limitations  in  time  and  funds,  but  those  described 
constitute  the  principal  ones  and  represent  the  vast  majority  of  wage- 
earners.  In  this  Part,  then,  are  described,  in  a  general  way.  the  in- 
dustries investigated,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  have  been  sur- 
veyed, as  well  as  the  types  of  health-hazardous  processes  found  to 
exist  in  them.  The  description  of  these  processes  will  be  taken  up  in 
the  next  Part.  It  will  be  seen  that  irrespective  of  the  number  of  in- 
dustries and  the  number  of  trades,   health-hazardous   processes   are 

51 


-     -       -  52 

comparatively  few  in  number.  From  a  hygienic  part  of  view,  many 
trades  and  callings  are  so  similar  that  they  can  be  grouped  together 
under  one  common  head.  Any  peculiarities,  due  to  certain  trades  or 
operations,  are  described  when  they  occur. 

A  large  class  of  wage-earners  are  simply  doing  factory  work. 
Such  have  been  classified  under  the  head  of  "factory  processes"  in  the 
next  Part.  Except  for  dexterity,  which  experience  develops,  all 
such  work  is  unskilled  labor.  This  is  the  most  convenient  heading 
under  which  to  describe  the  hazards  of  many  processes  which  in- 
volve routine  machine  operations  and  hand  work,  such  as  assembling, 
inspecting  and  finishing  of  products.  Every  survey  has  a  limit  to 
the  fine  subdivisions  into  which  it  may  go.  It  was  the  intent  orig- 
inally to  make  investigations  which  would  cover  i/ioth  of  the  wage- 
earners  in  each  particular  industry,  guided,  of  course,  by  the  relative 
hazards  of  such  industries.  Later,  this  was  reduced  to  i/5th  of 
the  total  wage-earners,  as  given  in  the  U.  S.  Census  of  Manufactures 
for  the  State  of  Ohio  (1910).  It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  in 
many  instances  the  survey  has  considerably  passed  this  mark,  even  to 
the  extent  of  reporting  upon  more  places  and  more  workers  than  the 
census  figures  give  for  the  totals.  In  all  cases  our  figures  are  limited 
strictly  to  the  wage-earners,  and  do  not  concern  office  and  managerial 
forces. 

To  make  the  survey  representative  and  fair,  the  aim  has  been 
to  investigate  large,  medium  sized  and  small  plants  in  all  industries 
reported  upon,  and  to  carry  the  investigation  of  each  industry  into 
small  cities,  and  even  villages,  in  dififerent  parts  of  the  state,  as  well 
as  to  include  the  large  cities. 

To  anyone  who  has  perused  the  previous  sections  of  this  report 
(Parts  I,  II,  and  III),  it  Avill  be  seen  that  any  establishment  employing 
workers  at  regular  applications  is  certain  to  have  some  health-hazard- 
ous situations,  even  though  naught  but  general  factory  processes  are 
engaged  in.  The  question  with  the  survey  has  been  the  methods  used, 
if  any,  to  circumvent  all  such  hazards  to  health.  The  prime  object 
of  the  survey  has  been  to  lay  bare  the  industrial  conditions  which 
are  inducing  or  promoting  the  preventable  and  degenerative  diseases 
pointed  out  in  the  tables  given  in  Part  II  and  Part  VI. 

Almost  invariably  our  representatives,  after  presenting  their  cre- 
dentials at  the  various  establishments  have  been  most  courteously 
received.  It  is  only  fair  to  state  that  managements  not  only  tolerated 
our  investigations,  but  in  95%  of  instances,  at  least,  did  everything 
in  their  power  to  enable  us  to  get  at  the  facts,  often  at  considerable 
inconvenience   to   themselves   and   the   loss    of   valuable   time,     Our 


53 

investigators  always  came  unannounced.  Itineraries  were  so  arranged 
that  none  knew  where  nor  when  these  inspections  would  be  made. 
Hence  conditions  were  seen  as  they  really  were,  in,  we  believe,  all 
instances.  It  is  necessary  to  say  that  in  many  places  certain  hygienic 
improvements  were  under  contemplation,  or  under  way  at  the  time 
of  investigations,  so  that  any  subsequent  survey  would  probably  find 
them  better.  Unquestionably,  in  many  instances  our  own  investiga- 
tions, without  necessarily  intending  to  do  so,  initiated  hygienic  im- 
provements. 

The  investigators,  unless  upon  special  missions,  inspected  all 
plants  from  basement  to  loft,  where  wage-earners  were  employed, 
inquired  freely,  into  the  nature  of  processes,  and  endeavored  to  get 
at  all  facts  which  had  any  bearing  upon  the  health  of  the  wage- 
earners,  both  good  and  bad.  For  each  plant  a  summarized  report 
was  made,  covering  the  following  features :  character  of  business, 
total  employes,  total  wage-earners  (males;  females;  youths,  i6  to  20; 
and  minors  under  16),  trade  processes,,  mechanical  health  appliances, 
health  instructions  and  placards,  benefit  organizations  covering  sick- 
nesses, pensions  and  death,  general  sanitation  features  covering  toilets, 
washing  facilities,  shower  baths,  time  allowance  for  washing,  change 
rooms,  lockers,  clothing  and  by  whom'  supplied,  rest  rooms  for  fe- 
males, luncheon  quarters,  seasonal  influences,  welfare  work  outside 
of  the  factory,  and  the  general  appearance  and  contentment  of  the 
workers.     (For  the  hygienic  features  of  special  processes  see  Part  V.) 

In  connection  with  some  of  the  industries,  here  described,  are 
various  vital  statistics  which  have  been  available.  Only  such  have 
been  used  whose  source  is  authentic,  and  then  only  such  figures  as 
are  large  enough  to  mean  something.  One  fault  which  oftentimes 
employers,  as  well  as  others,  fall  into  is  that  of  quoting  a  few  in- 
stances, and  attempting  to  draw  general  conclusions  therefrom.  For 
instance,  it  may  be  shown  that  in  a  given  process  ^4  oi  the  workers 
have  remained  so  engaged  for  years  without  apparent  health  effect. 
The  fallacy  lies  in  not  being  able  to  state  what  has  happened  to  the 
other  34  of  the  wage-earners  who  have  been  employed.  Instances  are 
known  where,  of  10  persons  employed,  2  have  remained  steadily,  while 
in  the  course  of  a  year's  time,  50  different  individuals  worked  in  the 
remaining  8  places,  nearly  all  leaving  because  of  health  complaints. 

An  especial  appeal  is  made  to  employers  to  keep  sick  records. 
We  are  glad  to  say  that  this  is  now  done  by  some  of  the  most  pro- 
gressive establishments.  Such  records  should  include,  not  only  ab- 
sences due  to  sickness,  but  all  health  complaints  reported  to  foreman 
or  others,  not  only  concerning  the  work,  but  of  any  or  every  nature. 


54 

Employers  are  not  hygienists  nor  physicians  as  a  rule,  and  if  they 
attempt  to  judge  upon  the  relationship  between  these  complaints  and 
work  they  make  mistakes.  It  is  only  natural,  also,  that  certain  fea- 
tures bearing  upon  the  conservation  of  public  health  should  escape  the 
notice  of  the  layman,  or  appear  too  trivial  to  warrant  attention.  Right 
here  is  where  an  establishment  would  be  immensely  benefitted  through 
the  services  of  a  good  physician.  The  physician  could,  at  intervals, 
go  over  the  records  of  absences,  sicknesses,  and  health  complaints, 
and  suggest  many  remedies.  In  all  processes  involving  the  handling 
of  poisons,  and  in  trades  in  which  the  known  death  rate  from  pre- 
ventable diseases  is  high,  especial  attention  should  be  given,  such  as 
a  physical  examination  at  the  time  of  employment,  and  a  health 
inquiry  at  intervals  thereafter.  In  poisonous  industries,  for  instance, 
a  five  minute  health  inquiry,  by  a  physician,  of  each  worker  about 
once  a  month  would  be  all  that  is  usually  necessary.  Furthermore, 
the  physician  is  a  very  good  person  through  whom  to  get  to  the  em- 
ployes. His  services,  although  only  occasionally  employed,  would 
be  of  immense  help  to  the  employer,  not  only  in  the  supervision  of 
the  health  of  his  employes,  but  in  instilling  the  principles  of  personal 
hygiene  among  them,  and  in  overcoming  indififerences  to  efforts  which 
employers  and  others  may  make  in  this  direction.  There  is  no  sadder 
picture  than  the  employer  whose  welfare  efforts  have  been  un- 
appreciated, misunderstood,  and,  perhaps,  scoffed  at  by  his  employes, 
until  he  has  dropped  his  well-meaning  intentions,  locked  up  his  shower 
baths,  speeded  up  his  machinery,  and,  perhaps,  lengthened  the  work- 
day. The  reason  for  this  is  that  along  with  every  improvement  must 
go  education.  Education  in  industrial  hygiene  is  a  part  of  the  re- 
sponsibility of  the  employer.  There  is  no  better  man  to  help  him  out 
in  this  situation  than  the  occasional  services  of  a  physician  who  is 
well  respected  in  the  community. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Industry.  —  Any  single  branch  of  productive  activity;  as.  the  iron 
industr)^  the  soap  industry,  etc. 

Establishment. — A  place  of  business  with  its  buildings,  grounds, 
equipments  a:nd  personnel. 

Plant. — Same  as  "establishment". 

Place. — In  Parts  IV.  and  V.  this  word  is  used  very  often  and 
is  a  shorter  term  for  the  word  "establishment". 

Departfitent. — Branch  of  an  establishment,  especially  when  such 
is  located  in  quarters  by  itself;  as,  painting  and  varnishing  depart- 
ment, foundry  department,  etc. 


55 

Process.- — Particular  trade,  calling"  or  manipulation;  as,  painting 
process,  pickling  process,  etc. 

An  indtisiKy  is  represented  by  many  establishments  (plants  or 
places),  each  of  which  has  several  departments,  while  in  each  de- 
partment there  may  be  one  or  several  trade  processes,  each  engaging  a 
number  of  zvage-eariiers.  Wage-earners  engaged  in  similar  trade  pro- 
cesses usually  are  subjected  to  similar  health-hazards,  while  if  there 
are  several  trade  processes  in  the  same  department,  wage-earners  may 
be  subjected  to  the  health-hazards  of  other  processes  than  their  own. 

A    RUBBER   COMPANV'S   REPORT. 

The  following  tables  (abbreviated)  show  what  one  rubber  com- 
pany, employing  some  650  workers,  accomplished  in  the  winter  of 
1913-14  in  the  matter  of  Illness  Records,  Physical  Examinations  and 
Sickness  Records  of  their  employes: 

"We  find  that  there  was  a  total  of  about  380  examinations  at  the  regular 
examination  and  since  that  time  the  total  has  risen  to  443.  Now  out  of  these 
443,  the  items   show  as   follows : 

I.     Last  illness    ran   the    whole   list   almost,    malaria   predominating    with 
6,  measles  -5,  penumonia  4,  rheumatism,  pneumonia,  sore  throat,  stom- 
ach trouble,  typhoid,  scarlet  fever.  —  Only  45  cases,  all  told,  of  close 
enough  dates  to  report,  that  is  within  the  last  four  years, 
n.     Physical  Examination.  Finding: 
Eyes:    Vision,  right  5,  left  5. 
Hearing:     Right  2,  left  2. 
Chest  and  contained  organs: 
A  total  of  19  cases : 

Heart  Diseases,  12. 
Arterial  iSclerosis,  6. 
Pleurisy,  1. 
Abdomen  and  contained  organs  —  44  cases: 

All  pertaining  to  hernia. 
Rectum  and  Genito-nrlnary  organs  —  28  cases: 
Varicocele,  27. 
Hydrocele,  1. 
Mental  Alertness,  poor  —  6  cases: 
Illiterate  —  10  cases: 

"In  the  case  of  the  hernial  cases  above  mentioned,  with  the  exception  of 
probably  a  dozen,  they  were  very  slight  and  these  were  or  are  now  all  properly 
supported  by  truss  so  that  they  cause  no  inconvenience.  There  were  probably  a 
half  dozen  cases  of  varicocele,  and  the  hydrocele  was  bad.  These  cases  were  all 
instructed  to  wear  proper  support  to  prevent  aggravation  of  the  trouble. 

TTT.  Following  is  a  list  showing  Hospital  information  for  months  desig- 
nated, there  being  no  major  illness  cases,  and  with  but  one  or  two 
exceptions,  all  parties  returned  to  work  immediately: 


56 

November  (1st  month  of  Hospital) 

Illness  cases  93  —  Male  61,  Female  32. 

These   cases  included   migraine,   toothache,    throat    affection,   in 
the  most  part,  with  a  number  of  other  trivial  diseases. 
Surgical  cases  177  —  Male  156,  Female  21. 

Mostly  contusions,  abrasions,  infections  from  scratches,  and 
sprains,  nothing  serious,  excepting  one  contused  heel  and  one  elbow 
abrasion  and  puncture,  both  cases  reported  to  State. 

December. 

Illness  cases  57  —  Male  26,  Female  31. 

Practically  same  as  November. 
Surgical  cases  61  —  Male  51,  Female  10. 

Same  as  for  November,  excepting  one  crushed  hand,  one  hand 
and  leg  injured,  one  side  bruised,  all  reported  to  State  Commission, 
the  crushed  hand  having  to  be  amputated. 

January,  1914. 

Illness  cases  77  —  Male  38,  Female  39. 

'Same  as  former  months. 
Surgical  cases  72  —  Male  64,  Female  8. 

Usual,  two  cases  reported  to  State,  neither  being  serious. 

February. 

Illness  118  — Male  67,  Female  51. 
Surgical  42  —  Male  39,  Female  3. 

Two  cases  reported  to   State,  neither  being  a  major  accident." 

There  is  no  question  but  that  from  the  manner  in  which  the 
superintendent  of  this  firm  has  taken  hold  of  the  question  of  physical 
examinations  and  medical  records  of  his  employes,  he  is  getting  to- 
gether a  working  force  which  is  superb,  one  in  which  the  defective 
worker  is  properly  fitted  to  his  job  (not  discharged),  and  one  in 
which  the  constant  repetition  of  minor  health  complaints  are  having 
their  causes  discovered  and  (whether  occupational  or  not)  these 
causes  eliminated  when  preventable. 

A  prominent  eastern  establishment  has  been  able  to  improve 
cases  of  heart  disease  by  selecting  proper  work  for  such  persons, 
not  only  saving  lives  thereby,  but  keeping  worthy  and  productive 
men  on  their  jobs. 

A  large  steel  company,  which  employed  an  average  of  5,602 
workers  during  a  period  of  38  months,  supplied  us  with  very  care- 
fully compiled  tables  of  sickness  taken  from  its  sick  benefit  associa- 
tion records,  which  covered  all  employes.  (No  accidents,  or  venereal 
diseases  included.)  In  all , cases  workers  were  genuinely  sick  for  at 
least  one  week.     Classifications  showed  as  follows : 


s? 


/.     General  Charactef  of  Sickness  in  an  Iron  and  Steel  Establish- 
ment. 

No.  Yearly 

Sickness.                                           Claiins.  Percentage. 

Preventable   diseases    1,150  5.750 

Degenerative  diseases  227  1 .  135 

Other  diseases    67  .335 

Total    : 1,444  7.220 

//.     Systemic  Classification  of  Sickness  in  an  Iron  and  Steel  Estab- 
lishment. 

No.  Yearly 

Systematic   Diseases.  Claims.  Percentage. 

Respiratory'    391  1 .955 

Digestive"    285  1 .  425 

Communicable'    218  1 .090 

Musculo-osseous^    184  .  920 

Nervous"    79  .395 

Skin'  65  .325 

Circulatory'     63     -  .315 

Urinary'   ' 45  .225 

Strain,    etc." , 41  .205 

Constitutional 27  .135 

Special  Senses    fears,    15) ' 17  .085 

Chronic   Infections    18  .090 

Lymphadenoid   6  .  030 

Neoplasms 5  .  025 

Total    1 ,444  7.220 

'^  Bronchitis,   145;  Pneumonia,  75;  Tuberculosis,  51;  Pleurisy,  39;  Tonsil- 
litis,  34;  Miscellaneous,  47. 

/Gastritis,    102;  Appendicitis,    53;  Liver  Trouble,   34;  Enteritis,    30;  In- 
digestion,  19;  Miscellaneous,   41. 

'La  Grippe,  100;  Typhoid  Fever,  72;  Mumps,  10;  Measles,  9;  Misc.,  27. 

*  Rheumatism,  141;  Lumbago,  37;  Miscellaneous,  6. 

'Sciatica,  18;  Neuralgia,  13;  Neurasthenia,  12;  Neuritis,  9;  Paralysis,  8; 
Miscellaneous,  19. 

'Boils  and  Carbuncles,  40;  Conjunctivitis,  9;  Miscellaneous,   16. 

^  Heart  Trouble,    31;  Varicose  Veins,    13;   Apoplexy  and  Cerebral  Hem- 
orrhage, 8;  Miscellaneous,   11. 

'Kidney  Trouble  and  Nephritis,  39;  Cystitis,  6. 

•Hemorrhoids,  16;  Hernia,  13;  Heat  Prostration,  4;  Miscellaneous,  7, 

^"Auto-intoxication,  24 1  Diabetes,  3, 


5« 

///.     The  Average  (Yearly)   Morbidity  Figures  in  the  Various  De- 
partments of  an  Iron  and  Steel  Establishment  During  a  Period 
of  5  Years,  ipii  to  1Q13  Inclusive. 
(The  greatest  variation  of  numbers  employed  did  not  exceed  15% 
in  any  one  department.) 

Average  Average  Average 

Number  of        Number  Per  cent 

Departments.  Employes.  Sick.  Sick. 

(a)  Heat  E.vposcd. 

Bessemer    393.3  33.  8.39 

Open  Hearth   145.3  7.'  4.81 

Rail  and  Shape  Mill 500.  43.3  8.66 

Blast  Furnaces    261.  35.  13,41 

Foundry    163.3  12.7  7.77 

Shelf  Mills  348.3  33.3  9.56 

Pipe  Mill 1,764.7  162.  9.18 

(b)  JVcalhcr  Exposed. 

Police    35.  _              2.7  7.o2 

Railroad    (yards)    •.  . . .  156.3  '  9.  .     5.76 

Section  Hands   110.                  10.  9.09 

l^ard  Labor   ..-. 468'.                  28.7  6.13 

Ore  Docks... 90.3              ,8.3  9.19 

Bricklayers   72.7                  2.7  3.66 

Building  Construction    106.3                  9.7  9.07 

(c)  Indoors   (mostly). 

^lechanical 472.3  47.7  10.09 

Electrical    181.3  4.8"  2.37 

Miscellaneous    351.6  11.3  3.21 

Total 5,619.7  460.7  8.20 

The  above  tables  are  very  important — 

First,  because  they  show  the  type  and  the  minimum  amount  of 
sickness  that  can  be  expected  at  the  present  day  in  an  iron  and  steel 
establishment  which  has  the  highest  attainments  in  sanitation  and 
hvgiene  of  worlcing  quarters,  and  medical  supervision  of  it^s  employes. 

Second,  because  the  last  table  (No.  III.)  shows  definitely  which 
departments  have  the  most  and  which  have  the  least  percentage  of 
cases  of  sickness,  and  hence  where  the  greatest  precautions  are  neces- 
sary. 

Third,  because  average  sickness  figures  are  shown  for  a  number 
of  "weather  exposed"  groups  of  workers  who  are  under  organized 
welfare  and  medical  supervision — figures  hard  to  obtain  for  these 
classes.  It  may  be  added  in  conclusion  that  a  large  percentage  of 
these  workers  are  foreigners,  Eastern  European,  and  therefore  the 
most  difficult  class  to  instruct  and  supervise,  but  a  strong  overseers' 


59 

and  foremen's  organization  with  high  ideals,  patience  and  persistence 
has  developed  a  working  force  in  a  health-hazardous  line  of  industry 
in  which  the  average  yearly  sickness  is  only  8.2  per  cent.  (The  sta- 
tistics supplied  give  the  exact  types  of  sickness  in  each  department, 
but  the  necessarily  small  numbersl  for  each  disease  do  not  make  it 
advisable  to  publish  the  same  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  respiratory 
and  digestive  diseases  lead  in  practically  all  departments.) 


INDUSTRIES  HAVING  A  KNOWN   ASSOCIATION   WITH   THE   USE 

OF  POISONS. 

(See  Part  V  and  the  general  index  for  description  of  the  health- 
hazardous  processes  mentioned.  It  is,  of  course,  undersood  that  many 
hazards  other  than  poisoning  exist  in  the  various  industries  here 
listed.) 

AGRICULTURAL    IMPLEMENTS. 

According  to  the  Census  there  are  55  firms  employing  5,997 
wage-earners,  or  1.3%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  State.  Our 
investigations  covered  12  plants,  in  6  cities,  employing  4,560  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  4,499  were  males  and  61  females.  The  industry 
is  made  up  of  several  processes  which  are  more  or  less  health-haz- 
jardous,  viz..  Iron  Founding,  Brass  Founding,  Core  Making,  Metal 
Grinding,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Polishing 
and  Buffing,  Wood-working,  Painting. 

AUTOMOBILES,    INCLUDING    Br:DlES    AND    PARTS. 

This  industry,  according'  to  the  Census,  includes  75  establish- 
ments, employing  12,130  wage-earners,  or  2.7%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  (Jur  investigations  covered  34  firms,  in  10  cities, 
employing  17,783  wage-earners,  of  wliom  17,404  were  males  and  379 
were  females.  The  industry  is  made  up  of  several  processes  which 
are  more  or  less  health-hazardous,  viz..  Iron  Founding,  Brass  Found- 
ing, Core  Making,  Metal  Grinding,  Forging  and  Blacksmithino-.  Ma- 
chine Shopping,  Brazing,  Soldering,  Welding,  Polishing  and  Buffing, 
Acid  Dipping,  Pickling,  Furnacing,  Tempering,  Electroplating,  Paint- 
ing and  Varnishing,  Ja]ianning,  l*ji:uneling.  Facquering  and  Shellacing. 

BABBIT    METAL    AND    SOLDER. 

The  Census  shows  6  firms  employing  74  wage-earners.  Our  in- 
vestigations covered  2  firms,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  8  wage- 
earners,   all  males. — Furthermore,   bal)bitting   of   journal    bearings   is 


6o 

an  auxiliary  process  in  railway  shops  and  many  large  plants  in  the 
foundry  and  machine  shop,  and  iron  and  steel  branches  of  industry. 
One  of  the  two  plants  visited  had  melting  pots  well  hooded,  so 
that  risks  from  lead  poisoning  were  only  nominal.  General  working 
conditions  were  fair.  The  other  plant  had  no  devices  for  removing 
lead  fumes.  Foreman  admitted  trouble  from  lead  poisoning  in  the 
past.  General  conditions  of  working  very.  poor.  One  case  of  lead 
poisoning  was  seen. 

BICYCLES,     MOTORCYCLES    AND    PARTS,    AND    SEWING    MACHINES,    CASES 

AND   ATTACHMENTS. 

The  Census  gives  lo  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  4,773  wage-earners,  or  i.i%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  3  establishments, 
in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  or  2,795  wage-earners,  of  whom  2,685 
were  males,  and  no  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health- 
hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Brass  Founding,  Forging  and 
Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Brazing,  Tempering,  Metal  Grind- 
ing, Polishing  and  Buffing,  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Wood-work- 
ing, Painting  and  Varnishing,  and  Enameling. 

BOXES,   FANCY  AND  PAPER. 

The  Census  reports  46  firms  employing  2,530  wage-earners,  or 
0.6%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations 
covered  4  firms,  in  4  cities,  employing  581  wage-earners,  of  whom  351 
were  males  and  230  females.  Outside  of  general  factory  processes 
the  industry  was  found  to  have  the,  following  processes  of  health- 
hazardous  character :  Wood-working,  Gluing,  Painting  and  Varnish- 
ing, Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Staining,  Bronzing,  Printing. 

BRASS  AND  BRONZE  PRODUCTS. 

The  Census  shows  82  firms  in  this  industry,  employing  2,232 
wage-earners,  or  0.5%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our 
investigations  covered  55  firms,  in  6  cities,  employing  4,532  employes, 
of  whom  4,450  were  males,  and  82  females.  The  industry  consists 
of  several  health-hazardous  processes,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
chief:  Brass  and  Bronze  Founding,  Core  Making,  Metal  Grinding, 
Polishing  and  Buffing,  Machine  Shopping,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing, 
Soldering,  Brazing,  Furnacing,  Pickling,  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating, 
Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Enameling. 
Japanning.    In  addition,  some  plants  were  concerned  in  Iron  Founding. 


According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  State  of  Ohio, 
for  the  years  1910,  191 1  and  1912',  there  were  reported  43  deaths  of 
Brass  Molders  and  Brass  Workers,  of  whom  14  died  of  puhnonary 
tuberculosis,  or  32.72%  of  their  total  deaths.  While  the  number  of 
total  deaths  reported  is  small,  the  high  rate  of  consumption  is  in  har- 
mony with  observations  concerning  this  industry  reported  elsewhere. 
This  rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate 
of  all  occupations  in  the  state  combined,  for  the  same  years,  which 
was  13.3%,  and  is  also  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis 
death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same 
period,  which  was  7.13%. 

Tables  submitted  by  the  General  Secretary-Treasurer  and  Editor 
of  the  Brassworkers'  (Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers,  Brass  and 
Silver  Workers)  Union  of  North  America  for  the  5  year  period  from 
1909  to  19 14,  covering  the  death  claims  paid,  show  the  chief  causes 
of  deaths,  numbers  and  percentages  to  be  as  follows : 

Cause.  No.  Per  cent. 

Tuberculosis 77  31.9 

Pneumonia   .'' 31  12.9 

Heart  Disease  31  12.9 

Violence    (including   6    suicides) 19  7.9 

Other  preventable  deaths 20  8.0 

Other  Deaths  from  Degenerative  Diseases 57'  23.5 

Permissible  deaths 7  2.9 

Total 242  100.0 

The  following  quotation  is  from  the  letter  accompanying  the 
tables : 

"You  will  note  from  the  report,  the  large  percent  of  our  members  that 
die  from  Pulmonary. Tuberculosis.  All  of  these  deaths  we  believe  were  con- 
tracted by  working  at  this  trade,  but  the  sad  feature  is  that  at  least  95%  of 
those  that  contract  Consumption,  working  at  our  dangerous  trade,  will  not 
acknowledge  they  have  the  disease  until  they  are  too  far  gone  for  recovery. 
They  then  quit  the  trade  and  try  to  get  a  position  out  in  the  air,  often  as 
collectors,  driving  laundry  wagons,  or  a  farm,  or,  if  fortunate  enough,  go 
West.  These  we  believe  eventually  succumb  to  the  disease  contracted  while 
working  at  the  trade.  We  lose  all  track  of  them  and  have  no  record.  If  it 
were  possible  to  keep  this  record,  the  percentage  of  deaths  in  our  trade  would 
be  enormous." 

The  average  (median)  age  at  death  of  the  242  brassworkers  was 
40.1  years,  while  for  those  who  died  of  tuberculosis  it  was  37.27 
years.      (Since  this  is  a  long-period   occupation  the  median   age  at 


62 

death  has  some  significance.)  Hence  occupation  cut  oil  about  21  years 
from  the  expected  life  of  each  worker  when  he  began  to  learn  the 
trade  at  16  to  18  years. of  age. 

CARRIAGES,    WAGONS   AND    MATERIALS. 

The  Census  shows  407  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  8,815  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in 
the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  53  establishments,  in  1 1  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  2,484  wage-earners,  of  whom  2,443  were  males 
and  41  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be :  Wood-working,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Ma- 
chine Shopping,  Aletal  Grinding,  x\cid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Shel- 
lacing and  Lacquering,  Painting  and  \"arnishing,  Staining,  and  Up- 
holstering. 

CARS    MADE   BY   RAILROAD   COMPANIES. 

The  Census  shows  71  establishments  employing  20,728  engaged  in 
both  the  construction  and  repair  of  cars  by  steam  railroad  companies, 
and  49  establishments  employing  1,318  wage-earners  engaged  in  gen- 
eral shop  construction  and  repair  by  street  railroad  companies.  The 
two  classes  combined  employ  4.9%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  A  large-  amount  of  this  work  is  carried  on  in  the  open,  or  in 
very  openly  constructed  buildings.  The  vast  percentage  of  it  is  gen- 
eral repair  and  round-house  work,  in  which  health-hazards  are  only 
nominal.  Our  investigations  covered  6  establishments,  in  4  cities,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  5,534  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  health- 
hazardous  processes  were  found  to  be :  Forging  and  Blacksmithing, 
Brass  Founding,  Machine  Shopping,  Soldering,  Tinning,  Storage  Bat- 
teries (repairing),  Wood-working,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellac- 
ing and  Lacquering,  Welding,  Babbitting. 

CARS    NOT    MADE    BY   RAILROAD   COMPANIES. 

The  Census  shows  10  establishments  so  engaged,  employing  3,016 
wage-earners,  or  0.7%  of  the  total  wage-earners  of  the  state.  Our 
investigations  covered  7  firms,  in  7  cities,  employing  a  total  of  6,464 
wage-earners,  of  whom  all  except  5  were  males.  The  chief  health- 
hazardous  processes  v/ere  found  to  be  the  same  as  for  Cars  Made  by 
Railroad  Companies  fz'.  s-,). 

CASH    REGISTERS    AND    CALCULATING    MACHINES. 

The  Census  shows  8  establishments  so  engaged,  but  the  number 
of  wage-earners  is  not  stated.     Our  investigations  covered  5  estab- 


63 

lishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  7,472  wage-earners,  of  whom  6,940 
were  males  and  532  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-  hazardous 
character  were  found  to  be :  Brass  Founding,  Forging  and  Black- 
smithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Metal  Grijiding,  Polishing  and  Buffing, 
Tempering,  Pickling  and  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Sandblasting, 
Wood-working,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering, 
Electrotyping,  Printing. 

CHEMICALS. 

The  Census  gives  33  establishments  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  chemicals,  employing  1,132  wage-earners,  or  0.3%  of  the  total 
wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  4  establish- 
ments, in  3  cities,  employing  1,101  Avage-earners,  of  whom  1,100  were 
males  and  i  a  female.  The  balance  of  the  establishments  are  small 
firms.  The  following  were  found  to  be  the  chief  health-hazardous 
processes"  of  this  industry :  Chemical  Manufacturing.  Forging  and 
Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping. 

COFFINS.    BURIAL    CASES,  AND    UNDERTAKER'S    GOODS. 

The  Census  gives  24  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 1.245  wage-earners,  or  0.3%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  8  firms,  in  5  cities,  employing  a  total 
of  922  wage-earners,  of  whom  745  were  males  and  177  were  females. 
Some  of  these  establishments  make  only  wood  coffins,  others  metallic 
burial  vaults  and  metallic  coffin  trimmings.  The  following  processes 
were  found  to  be  the  chief  ones  of  health-hazardous  concern :  Found- 
ing (see  Brass),  Metal  Grinding,  Polishing  and  Buffing.  ^Machine  Shop- 
ping, Welding,  Soldering,  Electroplating,  Engraving.  W^oodworking, 
Sewing,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering. 

COPPER,    TIN    AND    SHEET-IRON    PRODUCTS. 

The  Census  gives  221  establishments  engaged  in  this  rather  am- 
biguous industry,  employing  a  total  of  6,598  wage-earners,  or  1.5%  of 
the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  8 
establishments,  principally  tin  can  and  galvanized  can  manufacturers, 
which  we  have  classified  under  this  heading,  located  in  5  cities,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  1,307  wage-earners,  of  whom  840  were  males  and  467 
were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were 
found  to  be :  Tinning,  Galvanizing,  Soldering,  Machine  Shopping, 
Welding,  Polishing  and  Buffing.  Acid  Dipping,  Pickling,  Electroplat- 
ing, Painting  and  A^arnisbing,  Enameling.- Japanning,  Lithographing. 


CUTLERY  AND  TOOLS. 

The  Census  gives  70  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  2,820  wage-earners,  or  0.6%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  25  establishments,  in 
6  cities,  employing  a  total  of  4,202  wage-earners,  of  whom  3,949  were 
males  and  253  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous 
character  were  found  to  be :  Brass  Founding,  Iron  Founding,  Forging 
and  Blacksmithjng,  Tempering,  Welding,  Furnacing,  Hot  Shaping 
(Iron),  Metal  Grinding,  Machine  Shopping,  Polishing  and  Buffing, 
Sandblasting,  Pickling,  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Tinning,  Wood- 
working. Painting  and  Varnishing,  Enameling,  Etching. 

DRY    CLEANING   AND   DYEING. 

This  non-manufacturing  industry  is  not,  of  course,  included  in  the 
Census  reports.  Our  investigations  covered  2"j  establishments,  in  6 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  698  wage-earners,  of  whom  263  were  males 
and  435  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter were  found  to  be:  Dry  (and  Steam)  Cleaning,  Dyeing,  Ironing 
and  Pressing,  and  Carpet  Cleaning.  In  addition,  one  establishment 
was  engaged  in  laundry  processes  and  another  in  the  manufacture 
of  rugs. 

ELECTRICAL    MACHINERY,    APPARATUS    AND    SUPPLIES. 

The  Census  gives  115  establishments,  employing  8,073  wage- 
earners,  or  1.8%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  29  establishments,  in  11  cities,  employing  a  total  of  8.982 
wage-earners,  of  whom  6,576  were  males  and  2,368  were  females.  The 
chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Brass 
Founding,  Iron  Founding,  Core  Making,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing, 
Metal  Grinding,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Machine  Shopping,  Soldering, 
Tempering,  Pickling.  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Sandblasting,  Fur- 
nacing, Storage  Battery  Manufacturing,  Dry  Battery  Manufacturing. 
Wood-working,  Mixing  Chemicals,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Paint- 
ing and  Varnishing,  Incandescent  Lamp  Manufacturing,  Pottery 
Processes. 

ELECTROPLATING. 

The  Census  gives  29  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  205  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  8 
.establishments,  in  5  cities,  employing  a  total  of  no  wage-earners,  all 
males.  In  addition,  electroplating  processes  have  been  considered  else- 
where in  connection  with  a  great  many  lines  of  industry.     The  chief 


65 

processes  of  health-hazardous  character  are :  Metal  Grinding,  Polish- 
ing and  Buffing,  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Shellacing  and  Lac- 
cjuering. 

ENAMELING    AND    JAPANNING. 

The  Census  gives  5  establishments  in  this  industry,  employing  a 
total  of  145  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  5  establish- 
ments, in  3  cities,  employing  a  to'.al  of  115  employes,  of  whom  102 
were  males  and  13  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health- 
hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Furnacing,  Machine  Shop- 
ping, Acid  Dipping,  Pickling,  Mixing  Chemicals,  Sandblasting,  Enam- 
eling, Painting  and  Varnishing,  Japanning. 

ENGRAVING    AND    DVE-SINKING. 

The  Census  gives  8  firms  engaged  in  this  process,  but  the  number 
of  wage-earners  is  not  stated.  However,  engraving  is  a  process  asso- 
ciated with  a  number  of  industries  and  figures  cannot  be  considered  at 
all  representative.  Qur  investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  3 
cities,  employing  a  to^tal  of  105  wage-earners,  95  of  whom  were  males 
and  10  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter were  found  to  be:  Engraving,  Chemical  Processes  (Photog- 
raphy), and  sedentary  work  in  the  nature  of  Designing  and  Illustrat- 
ing.    (See  also  Photo-Engraving.) 

EXPLOSIVES. 

The  Census  gives  11  establishments  in  this  industry,  employing 
358  wage-earners,  or  0.1%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our 
investigations  covered  7  plants,  in  7  city  vicinities,  employing  a  total  of 
994  workers,  of  whom  755  were  males  and  239  were  females.  (These 
figures  include  one  large  ammunition  factory,  the  majority  of  whose 
employes  were  not  concerned  with  explosives  directly.)  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  the  Manu- 
facture of  Explosives,  in  addition  to  which  were  Founding  (see  Brass). 
Machine  Shopping,  Soldering,  Wood-working,  and  Painting  and  Var- 
nishing. 

FERTILIZERS. 

The  Census  gives  zj  establishments  in  this  industry,  employing 
841  wage-earner.'i,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our 
investigations  covered  lo  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  849 
wage-earners,  of  whom  839  were  males  and  10  were  females.  The 
chief  health-hazards  were  found  to  be:  Fertilizer  Manufacturing,  Oil 
Refming.  Glue  Making. 
5     o.   D. 


FILES. 

The  Census  shows  7  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  139  wage-earners.  Our  investigation  covered  4  establish- 
ments, in  3  cities,  employing  108  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Temper- 
ing, File  Cutting,  Metal  Grinding,  Machine  Shopping. 

FLAVORING   EXTRACTS. 

The  Census  gives  ^il  establishments  in  this  industry.  The  total 
number  of  employes  is  too  small  to  be  mentioned.  Our  investigations 
covered  2  establishments,  in  i  city,  employing  a  total  of  18  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  16  were  males  and  2  were  females.  The  chief 
health-hazard  is  Mixing  Chemicals. 

FOUNDRY  AND  MACHINE  SHOP  PRODUCTS. 

This  industry,  which  is  the  first  in  importance  in  the  state,  com- 
prises, according  to  the  Census,  1,218  establishments,  employing  a  total 
of  64,817  wage-earners,  or  14.5%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  47  establishments,  in  11  cities,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  14,484  wage-earners,  of  whom  13,857  were  males 
and  627  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter were  found  to  be :  Iron  Founding,  Brass  Founding,  Core 
Making,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Tempering,  Welding,  Metal 
Grinding,  Machine  Shopping,  Furnacing,  Pickling,  Tinning,  Galvan- 
izing, Soldering,  Brazing,  Hot  Riveting,  Mixing  Chemicals,  Acid  Dip- 
ping, Electroplating,  Babbitting,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Sandblasting, 
Tumbling,  Oil  Refining,  Wood-working,  Painting  and  Varnishing, 
Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Staining,  Enameling,  Japanning. 

According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  State  of  Ohio, 
for  the  years  1910,  191 1  and  1912,  there  were  reported  the  deaths  of 
605  molders,  of  whom  no  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  18.18% 
of  their  deaths.  During  the  same  period  there  were  reported  the 
deaths  of  1,195  machinists,  of  whom  224  died  of  pulmonary  tubercu- 
losis, or  18.74%  of  their  deaths.  These  rates  are  to  be  compared  to  the 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  state  com- 
bined for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  are  also  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in 
Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  vSame  period,  which  was  7.13%, 


67 


FUR  GOODS. 

The  Census  gives  i8  establishments,  employing  167  wage-earners. 
Our  investigations  covered  4  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a 
total  of  44  wage-earners,  of  whom  21  were  males  and  23  were  females. 
No  curing  of  furs  was  done.  The  chief  health-hazards  were  found  to 
be:  Sewing,  and  the  use  of  hard-wood  dust  (oak  and  mahogany) 
and  corn  meal  flour  to  clean  the  furs.  One  case'  of  chronic  conjunct- 
ivitis and  blepharitis  was  reported,  due,  probably  to  the  effects  of  this 
dust.  Also  it  was  found  that  yellow  furs  were  dyed  yellow  with 
anilin  dyes,  used  dry.  No  workers  were  at  the  time  so  employed. 
Whether  this  yellow  dye  is  poisonous  or  not  we  are  unable  to  state, 
although  saffron  yellow  and  anilin  orange  are  regarded  as  suspicious 
or  injurious  to  health.  Furs  collected  in  Ohio  are  "fleshed"  and  then 
sent  elsewhere  for  tanning  and  curing,  then  returned  and  made  up 
here.  The  fur  animals  of  the  state  are  mink,  muskrat,  skunk,  ferret, 
raccoon,  fox  and  squirrel. 

FURNITURE  AND  REFRIGERATORS. 

The  Census  gives  228  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total  of  8,232  wage-earners,  or  1.8%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  19  establishments,  in 
8  cities,  employing  a  total  of  3,953  wage-earners,  of  whom  3,837  were 
males  and  116  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous 
character  w^ere  found  to  be :  Machine  Shopping,  Wood-working,  Acid 
Dipping,  Electroplating,  Brazing,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellacing 
and  Lacquering,  Staining,  Enameling,  Gluing,  Tinning,  Upholstering. 
(See  Wood-working  for  Vital  Statistics.) 

GAS,  ILLUMINATING  AND  HEATING. 

The  Census  gives  38  establishments  engaged  in  this  process,  em- 
ploying 666  wage-earners,  or  about  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners 
in  the  state.  Our  investigations  of  this  industry  covered  but  2  inde- 
pendent concerns,  employing  a  total  of  55  wage-earners,  all  males,  but 
in  connection  with  a  number  of  establishments  the  gas-producing  plant 
was  investigated.  The  chief  health-hazards  of  this  industry  are  given 
under  Gas  Producing. 

GALVANIZING. 

The  Census  gives  5  establishments,  but  the  number  of  wage- 
earners  is  not  stated.  Our  investigations  covered  2  establishments, 
engaged  solely  in  galvanizing,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  33  males. 


68 

However,  the  great  bulk  of  galvanized  goods  are  made  in  Iron  and 
Steel  Rolling  Mills,  where  it  is  reported  upon  elsewhere.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Pickling 
and  Galvanizing. 

GLASS. CUTTING,    STAINING   AND  ORNAMENTING. 

(Glass  manufacturing  is  considered  elsewhere.) 

The  Census  gives  34  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
the  number  of  employes  is  not  stated.  Our  investigations  covered  10 
establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  a  total  of  347  wage-earners,  of 
whom  329  were  males  and  18  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of 
health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Glass  Finishing,  Glass 
Etching,  Mirror  Making,  Sandblasting,  Soldering,  Electroplating, 
Painting  and  Gilding.  There  is  also  Transfer  Work  (Decalcomania), 
and  some  Glass  Blowing,  but  only  a  few  so  employed. 

HATS,  FUR-FELT. 

The  Census  gives  3  establishmen'.s  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  9  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  2  estab- 
lishments, employing  a  total  of  166  wage-earners,  of  whom  64  were 
males  and  102  were  females.-  The  health-hazardous  processes  were 
found  to  be:  Dyeing,  Ironing  and  Pressing,  Sewing,  Shellacing  and 
Varnishing,  also  Founding.  In  addition,  the  process  of  Steaming,  to 
shape  the  hats  over  molds,  was  found  to  be  a  work  largely  done  by 
foreigners,  who  barely  understood  English,  although  a  fair  amount  of 
skill  was  necessary;  There  was  considerable  exposure  to  humidity,  due 
to  steam  and  vapors  of  undetermined  character,  windows  being  the 
only  method  of  ventilation.  Work  was  rather-  warm.  Fatigue  was 
more  than  a  moderate  hazard,  due  to  piece-work,  monotony,  constant 
standing,  body  pressure,  eye-strain  and  noise.  A  9-hour  day,  with  i 
hour  off  for  noon  was  the  rule.  The  men  ate  in  the  workrooms,  and 
there  was  no  medical  supervision. 

instruments;  professional,  scientific. 

The  Census  gives  17  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
the  number  of  wage-earners  is  not  stated.  Our  investigations  covered 
2  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  175  wage-earners,  of 
whom  120  were  males  and  55  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of 
health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Machine  Shopping, 
Soldering,  Welding,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Electroplating,  Glass  Fin- 
ishinsf. 


69 


IRON    AND    STEEL   DOORS    AND    SHUTTERS. 

The  Census  gives  3  establishments,  without  stating  the  number  of 
wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  i  establishment,  in  i  city, 
employing  90  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health- 
hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Machine  Shopping  and 
Painting. 

JEWELRY. 

The  Census  gives  35  establishments,  employing  a  total  of  356 
wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  3  establishments,  in  i  city, 
employing  a  total  of  23  wage-earners,  all  males.  Apparently  there  is 
no  diamond  cutting  as  a  regular  process  done  in  this  state,  hence  the 
dangers  of  lead  poisoning  and  dust  from  this  source  may  be  considered 
almost  nil.  One  health-hazardous  process  is  Soldering,  in  which  the 
worker  has  his  face  very  close  to  the  fumes  which  arise,  and  another 
is  the  inhalation  of  metallic  dusts  from  Polishing  and  Buffing.  At  two 
of  the  places  inspected  good  exhaust  systems  were  present.  Another 
hazard  is  fatigue,  due  to  eye-strain,  monotony,  faulty  postures,  blow- 
piping,  etc.  There  is  also  Engraving,  Etching  and  Electroplating. 
There  is  some'  risk  from  lead  fumes,  cyanid  fumes  from  hot  baths, 
mercury  vapor  and  acid  fumes,  as  well  as  shellacs,  which  are  used. 
No  cases  of  eczema  or  skin  trouble  were  found. 

JUNK. 

(Sorting  Rags  and  Scrap  Metals.) 

The  Census  gives  no  figures  for  this  non-manufacturing  industry. 
Our  investigations  covered  22  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  a 
total  of  406  wage-earners,  of  wdiom  334  were  males  'and  72  were 
females.  These  figures  do  not  include  those  engaged  in  sorting  and 
handling  of  rags  in  paper-stock  companies.  The  chief  health-hazardous 
processes  were  found  to  be :  Junk  Sorting,  and  occasionally  melting 
down  of  non-ferrous  metals.  (See  Brass  Foundry;  also  Paper  Manu- 
facturing.) 

LEAD. BAR,    PIPE    AND    SHEET. 

The  Census  gives  2  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
the  number  of  wage-earners  is  not  stated.  Our  investigations  covered 
3  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  34  wage-earners,  all 
males.  This  does  not  include  establishments  considered  as  lead  oxide 
manufacturing  (see  Paint  Manufacturing).  The  chief  health-hazard 
is  the  handling,  melting  and  pouring  of  lead — in  other  words,  Foun- 
ding.    (See  Foundry,  Brass.)     In  one  plant  efficient  hoods  and  venti- 


7'» 

lating  stacks  were  provided.  In  the  other  2  these  were  absent.  There 
was  a  general  ignorance  of  personal  hygiene  respecting  lead  poisoning, 
and  the  workers  were  allowed  to  eat  anywhere.  Washing  facilities 
were  very  inadequate.  One  lead  poisoned  worker  was  seen  in  one  of 
the  places. 

LEATHER. TANNED,   CURED  AND  FINISHED. 

The  Census  gives  36  establishments,  employing  1,884  wage- 
earners,  or  0.4%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  8  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  1,120  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be :  Leather  Handling,  Leather  Dyeing  and  Leather 
Chemical  Processes. 

LIME. 

The  Census  gives  39  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  1,273  wage-earners,  or  about  0.3%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  7  establishments,  in  6 
cities,  employing  556  wage-earners. 

The  process  is  considered  under  the  head  of  Lime  Burning.  There 
is  also  Quarrying  and  Gas  Producing. 

MATCHES. 

The  Census  gives  4  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered 
3  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,782  wage-earners,  of 
whom  1,313  were  males  and  469  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of 
health-hazardous  character  are  given  under  Matches  (Part  V.) 
(Most  of  the  workers  are  in  General  Factory  Processes.) 

MIRRORS. 

The  Census  gives  8  establishments,  employing  94  wage-earners. 
Our  investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a 
total  of  89  wage-earners,  all  males  (these  are  in  addition  to  Mirror 
Making  done  by  firms  in  the  art  glass  business).  The  chief  processes 
of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Mirror  Making  (Sil- 
vering) ,  Glass  Finishing,  and  Polishing  and  Bufiing. 

MUSICAL    INSTRUMENTS,    PIANOS,    ORGANS    AND    MATERIALS. 

The  Census  gives  30  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 1,841  wage-earners,  or  0.4%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  851  wage-earners,  of  whom  4  were  females.     The  chief 


71 

processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were :  Brass  Founding,  Iron 
Founding,  Core  Making,  Metal  Grinding,  Tumbling,  Polishing  and 
Buffing,  Furnacing,  Machine  Shopping,  Soldering  (also  Welding,  Braz- 
ing), Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Wood-working,  Gluing,  Painting 
and  Varnishing,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Japanning  and  Bronzing. 

OILCLOTH    AND   LINOLEUM. 

The  Census  gives  3  establishments,  but  the  number  of  wage- 
earners  is  not  stated.  Our  investigations  covered  3  establishments,  in  3 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  240  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Oil  Cloth 
and  Linoleum  ^Manufacturing,  Oil  Refining,  Printing  and  Dyeing. 

OIL  (linseed)  and  petroleum  refining. 

The  Census  gives  14  establishments,  employing  1,872  wage- 
earners,  or  about  0.5%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our 
investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  1,007 
wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter were  found  to  be:  Oil  Refining,  Lead  Burning  (Soldering), 
Machine  Shopping  and  Wood-working. 

PAINT  AND  varnish. 

The  Census  gives  87  establishments,  employing  1,535  wage- 
earners,  or  0.3%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  40  establishments,  in  6  cities,  employing  a  total  of  2,379 
wage-earners,  of  whom  2,041  were  males  and  338  were  females.  The 
chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  Avere  found  to  be  :  Manu- 
facturing Lead  Compounds,  Paint  and  Varnish,  Filling  Paint  and  \'ar- 
nish  Containers,  and  Labeling;  also  Founding  (See  Brass),  manufac- 
turing Tin  Cans  and  Soldering. 

patent  medicines  and  COMPOUNDS,  AND  DRUGGTSTs'   PREPARATIONS. 

The  Census  gives  261  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 905  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  It  will  be  observed  that  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  per 
each  establishment  is  very  low.  Our  investigations  covered  i  establish- 
ment, employing  95  wage-earners,  of  whom  47  were  males  and  48  were 
females.  Health-hazards  in  tliis  industry  are  chietl\-  lliose  of  Factorv 
Processes  in  General.     .See  also  Mixing  Chemicals. 


72 


PHOTO-ENGRAVING. 


The  Census  gives  20  establishments,  employing  277  wage-earners. 
Our  investigations  covered  2  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  36 
wage-earners,  all  males,  in  addition  to  those  in  conjunction  with  print- 
ing and  publishing  establishments.  The  principal  health-hazards  were 
found  to  be  :  Art  and  Designing,  Photography,  Copper  and  Zinc  Print- 
ing and  Etching,  and  Blocking.  (Photo-engraving  has  been  considered 
under  Printing — Art,  Half-tone,  Etching,  etc.) 

PORCELAIN  ENAMELED  IRON  WARE. 

The  Census  does  not  give  this  industry  by  itself,  but  probably  in- 
cludes it  in  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products.  Our  investigations 
covered  5  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  504  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be :  Porcelain  Enameling  of  Iron  Ware,  Brass  Found- 
ing, Iron  Founding,  Core  Making,  Machine  Shopping,  Metal  Grinding, 
Sandblasting,  Wood-working,  Painting  and  Varnishing. 

POTTERY,  TERRA  COTTA  AND  FIRE  CLAY  PRODUCTS. 

The  Census  gives  186  establishments,  employing  16,519  wage- 
earners,  or  '^.J%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  56  establishments,  in  16  cities,  employing  a  total  of  9,494 
wage-earners,  of  whom  6,800  were  males,  and  2,694  were  females.  The 
branches  of  the  industry  investigated  were : 

No.  of 
Potteries. 
d)     White,  China  and  Sanitar_v  Ware 34 

(2)  Yellow,   Art  and  Utility  Ware 8 

(3)  Stoneware    8 

(4)  Tiles    (decorative) 4 

(5)  Porcelain    (electrical)    .' 2 

Total  56 

The  principal  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  in  this  in- 
dustry were  found  to  be :  Slip  Making,  Glaze  Making,  Sagger  Making, 
Mold  Making;  Clay-room  Processes,  Glaze  Dipping,  Biscuit  and  Glost 
Kilning,  Biscuit  and  Glost  Finishing,  Decorating,  Assorting  (  Shading), 
and  Packing  and  Shipping. 

According  to  the  State  Vital  Statistics  Reports,  there  were  225 
deaths  among  male  Potters  in  the  state  during  the  years  1910,  1911 
and  1912,  of  whom  53,  or  23.6'^   didl  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.     Tlic 


73 

rates  for  females  in  this  industry  are  not  given.  It  must  also  be  borne 
in  mind  that  this  rate  is  conservative,  since  a  certain  percentage  of  con- 
sumptive potters  leave  the  state  and  die  elsewhere,  or  lea\-e  the  industry 
and  take  up  other  callings  before  death  ensues.  This  rate  is  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the 
state  combined,  for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  is  also  to  be 
compared  to  the  pulmonary  tul^erculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in 
Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%. 

PRINTING  AND  PUBLISHING. 

The  Census  gives  1,655  establishments,  employing  15,756  wage- 
earners,  or  3.5%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  34  establishments,  in  5  cities,  employing  a  total  of  2,725 
wage-earners,  of  whom  2,325  w^ere  males  and  390  were  females.  The 
principal  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be : 
Composition  and  Miscellaneous  Small  Work,  Type-Machine  Processes, 
Printing  Press  Processes,  Bookbinding,  Artistic  Work,  Half-tones, 
Etchings,  etc..  Lithographing,  Compounding  Chemicals,  Gluing,  Found- 
ing (Brass).  No  type-founding  of  consequence  appears  to  be  done  in 
the  State  of  Ohio. 

According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  for 
the  years  1910,  191 1  and  1912,  there  were  a  total  of  273  deaths  reported 
among  Printers,  Pressmen  and  Compositors,  of  whom  58  died  of  pul- 
monary tuberculosis,  or  21.25%.  This  rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  state  com- 
bined, for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3% ;  and  is  also  to  be  compared 
to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricul- 
tural Pursuits  during  the  same  period,  w^hich  was  7.13%. 

ROOFING  MATERIALS. 

The  Census  gives  11  establishments,  but  the  number  of  wage- 
earners  is  not  stated.  Our  investigators  covered  3  establishments,  in  3 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  141  wage-earners,  of  whom  135  were  males 
and  6  were  females.  The  roofiiig  materials  in  question  consisted  of  the 
various  types  of  roofing  paper.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazard- 
ous character  were  found  to  be :  Rag-Sorting  and  Handling,  Paper 
Manufacturing,  Machine  Shopping,  and  Mixing  Chemicals. 

RUBBER  GOODS. 

(Not  elsewhere  specified.) 

The  Census  gives  37  establishments,  employing  10,382  wage- 
earners,  or  2.4%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.     Our  investiga- 


74 

tions  covered  32  establishments,  in  14  cities,  employing  a  total  of  25,060 
wage-earners,  of  whom  22,173  were  males  and  2,887  were  females. 
Two  or  three  of  the  large  companies  had  sick  benefit  associations  among 
the  employes,  but  only  a  portion  of  the  latter  were  members.  There 
were  no  unions.  The  attitude  toward  employes  was  usually  very  good, 
while  all  the  larger  companies  maintained  welfare  and  efficiency  depart- 
ments. No  organized  instructions  along  health  lines  were  given  to 
employes,  nor  were  placards,  other  than  "Don't  Spit"  signs,  observed. 
The  chief  poisons  used  in  the  industry  were  in  the  order  of  their  dan- 
ger to  users:  Anilin  oil,  carbon  bisulphide,  benzol  (benzenej,  lead  com- 
pounds, antimony  compounds,  mineral  acids,  alkalis,  benzine  (naphtha, 
petrol,  gasoline),  wood  alcohol,  sulphur  chloride,  carbon  tetrachloride, 
mercuric  sulphide,  and  turpentine;  in  some  processes  there  were  also 
the  risks  of  leaks  from  illuminating  and  fuel  gas.  A  considerable  part 
of  the  work  was  done  on  the  two  or  three  shift  plan  extending  over  the 
24  hours.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were 
found  to  be :  Rubber  Washing,  Compounding,  Mixing  Mills,  Calender- 
ing (including  Warming  Mills),  Tire  Building,  Pit  Curing,  Hot-Press 
Curing,  Dipping,  Cold  Curing,  Vapor  Curing,  Making  Inner  Tubes, 
Buffing,  Reclaiming,  Cement  Mixing,  Specialty  Manufacturing.  In 
addition,  there  were  the  following  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter :  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Wood-working, 
and  Mixing  Chemicals,  while  the  vast  lot  of  workers  were  engaged  in 
General  Factory  Processes. 

According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  State  of  Ohio,  for 
the  years  1910,  191 1  and  1912,  there  were  118  deaths  among  Rubber 
Factory  Operatives  (males),  of  whom  23  died  of  pulmonary  tubercu- 
losis, or  19.49%  of  their  deaths.  This  rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  state  com- 
bined, for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  is  also  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in 
Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%.  (See 
also  Special  Health  Report  of  a  Rubber  Company,  Part  IV.) 

'    SAFES   AND  VAULTS. 

The  Census  gives  10  establishments,  employing  2,014  wage- 
earners,  or  0.5%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  4  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,074 
wage-earners,  all  males.  In  one  other  plant  the  painting  department 
alone  was  visited,  employing  68  men  at  this  work.  This  does  not  in- 
clude establishments  investigated,  which  were  also  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  stoves.    The  chief  health-hazards  of  this  industry  were 


75 

found  to  be:  Iron  Founding,  Metal  Grinding,  Machine  Shopping, 
Polishing  and  Buffing,  AA^elding,  Electroplating,  Sandblasting,  Painting 
and  Varnishing,  and  Enameling. 

SALT. 

The  Census  gives  8  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  648  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  i 
establishment,  in  i  city,  employing  150  wage-earners,  of  whom  135 
were  males  and  15  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health- 
hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Salt  Manufacturing  and  Coop- 
erage (Wood-working). 

SCALES  AND  BALANCES. 

The  Census  gives  6  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  cov- 
ered 3  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  700  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  650  were  males  and  50  were  females.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Forging 
and  Blacksmithing,  Metal  Grinding,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Machine 
Shopping,  Tempering,  Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Wood-working. 
Painting  and  Varnishing,  Shellacing  and  Laccjuering. 

SHIPBUILDING,    INCLUDING    BOAT    BUILDING. 

The  Census  gives  39  estabHshments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  3,200  wage-earners,  or  0.8%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  3  establishments,  in  2 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,480  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  in  this  industry  were  found  to 
be :  Iron  Founding,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping, 
Soldering,  Wood-working,  Painting  and  Varnishing  (Caulking),  Shel- 
lacing. 

SIGNS    AND    ADVERTISING    NOVELTIES. 

The  Census  gives  28  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 1,096  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  12  establishments,  in  4  cities,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  1,043  wage-earners,  of  whom  790  were  males  and 
253  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be:  Machine  Shopping,  Soldering,  Furnacing  (Kiln- 
ing), Acid  Dipping,  Electroplating,  Mixing  Chemicals,  Printing  Proc- 
esses, Lithographing,  Artist's  Work,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Enam- 
eling, Paint  Mixing,  Bronzing.  Wood-working,  and  Factory  Processes 
such  as  Leather  Skiving,  Celluloid  Finishing,  Assembling,  etc. 


76 


SMELTING   AND   REFINING. 

(Not  from  the  Ore.) 

The  Census  gives  6  establishments,  employing  57  wage-earners. 
Our  investigations  covered  4  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  45 
wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous 
character  were  found  to  be :  Junk  Sorting  and  Handling,  Soft  Metal 
Melting  (see  Founding,  Brass). 

SPRINGS. STEEL    CAR    AND    CARRIAGE. 

The  Census  gives '  5  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  cov- 
ered 6  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  a  total  of  653  wage-earners, 
all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were 
found  to  be :  Furnacing,  Hot  Rolling,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing. 
Machine  Shopping,  Metal  Grinding,  Tempering,  Electroplating,  and 
Tool  Making  (see  Cutlery  and  Tools). 

STEREOTYPING  AND  ELECTROTYPING. 

The  Census  gives  14  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  207  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered  6 
establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  229  wage-earners,  all 
males.  The  processes  were  also  investigated  in  several  printing  estab- 
lishments (see  the  various  Printing  Processes,  especially  Type  Ma- 
chine Work).  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were 
found  to  be:  Founding  (Brass),  Mixing  Chemicals,  and  Electro- 
plating. Some  of  these  establishments  were  also  engaged  in  the  Print- 
ing Processes. 

STOVES  AND  FURNACES. 

The  Census  gives  102  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total  of  7,274  wage-earners,  or  1.6%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  15  establishments,  in 
9  cities,  engaged  mostly  in  the  manufacture  of  stoves  rather  than  fur- 
naces. The  manufacture  of  safes  was  found  to  be  an  auxiliary  feature 
with  some  of  these  companies.  The  total  wage-earners  in  the  plants 
covered  by  our  investigations  were  5,160,  of  whom  5,104  were  males 
and  56  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  charac- 
ter were  found  to  be :  Iron  Founding,  Core  Making,  Metal  Grinding, 
Sandblasting,  Tumbling,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Machine  Shopping, 
Welding,  Soldering,  Acid  Dipping,  Pickling,  Electroplating,  Enamel- 
ing, Japanning,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Wood-working. 


77 


TIN   PLATE  AND  TERNE   PLATE. 


The  Census  gives  4  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  676  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners 
in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  5  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  2,989  wage-earners,  but  of  these  only  616  were 
engaged  in  the  tin  and  terne  plate  processes,  including  74  females. 
(The  balance  are  considered  under  Iron  and  Steel  Rolling  Mills.) 
The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be : 
Pickling,  Tinning,  Machine  Shopping,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  and 
Lacquering. 

TOYS  AND  GAMES. 

The  Census  gives  19  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  cov- 
ered 4  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  625  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  569  were  males  and  56  were  females.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Metal 
Grinding,  Machine  Shopping,  Welding,  Tinning,  Electroplating, 
Brazing,  Enameling,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Upholstering. 


INDUSTRIES  ^HAVING  A  KNOWN  ASSOCIATION  WITH  DUST. 

Comment. — The  chief  health-hazard  of  the  industries  considered 
here  is  DUST.  This  does  not  imply  that  dust  is  not  also  a  chief  health- 
hazard  in  industries  considered  elsewhere,  nor  that  dust  is  the  only 
health-hazard  of  concern  here. 

BRICK  AND  TILE. 

The  Census  gives  517  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total  of  7,466  wage-earners,  or  1.7%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  9  establishments,  in  7 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  716  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  (Brick) 
Clay  ]\Iixing  and  Grinding,  Pressing  and  Kilning. 

BROOMS. 

The  Census  gives  82  establishments  engaged  in  making  brooms, 
employing  a  total  of  393  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered 
10  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  86  wage-earners,  of 
whom  82  were  males  and  4  were  females.  The  hazards  of  the  process 
are  stated  under  Broom  Manufacture. 


78 


CEMENT. 

The  Census  gives  9  establishments  engaged  in  cement  making, 
employing  887  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  tthe 
state.  Our  investigators  covered  2  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employ- 
ing 162  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  hazards  are  considered  under 
the  heading  "Cement  Making." 

COOPERAGE    AND    WOODEN    GOODS. 

(Not  specified  elsewhere.) 

Under  this  heading  the  Census  gives  113  establishments,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  1,663  wage-earners,  or  0.4%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in 
the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  i  establishment,  employing  390 
wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous 
character  were  found  to  be:  Wood-working;  also  Forging  and  Black- 
smithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Metal  Grinding,  Sandblasting,  and 
Painting.  In  addition  to  the  above  figures,  our  investigations  covered 
this  industry  in  a  large  number  of  establishments  where  it  was  auxil- 
iary to  their  principal  processes.  As  noted  from  the  processes  named, 
there  is  nothing  hygienically  peculiar  to  the  industry  as  such. 

CORDAGE,   TWINE,    JUTE  AND   LINEN    GOODS. 

The  Census  give  8  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  791  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners 
in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  5  establishments,  in  3  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  510  wage-earners,  of  whom  434  were  males  and 
76  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
are  considered  under  the  head  of  Cordage  Making  (Breaking,  Spread- 
ing, Drawing,  etc.).  Spinning,  Rope  and  Twine  Making,  and  Finishing. 

EMERY    AND    OTHER    ABRASIVE    WHEELS. 

The  Census  gives  3  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  coh- 
ered 2  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  112  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be :  Emery  Mixing,  Emery  Wheel  Truing,  Furnacing. 
Babbitting. 

FLOUR  AND  GRIST  MILL  PRODUCTS. 

The  Census  gives  673  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total   of  2,585   wage-earners,   or  0.6%   of  the  total   wage- 


79 

earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  but  2  establishments, 
employing  a  total  of  85  wage-earners,  all  males.  As  flour  itself  is  prac- 
tically a  harmless  dust,  and  occupational  complaints  are  very  rarely 
reported  from  this  type  of  industry,  we  did  not  take  time  to  investigate 
this  line  further.  Cooperage  is  an  auxiliary  process,  and  is  considered 
elsewhere.    The  manufacture  of  cereal  products  is  not  considered  here. 

GRINDSTONE. 

The  Census  gives  9  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 1,277  wage-earners,  or  0.3%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  this  process  in  4  establishments,  in 
3  cities,  employing  878  at  this  process.  The  balance  of  the  workers 
are  considered  under  Marble  and  Stone  Workers. 

MARBLE   AND   STONE. 

The  Census  gives  198  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total-  of  2,012  wage-earners,  or  0.5%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  were  directed  principally  to 
the  Sawing  and  Finishing  of  Stone,  Monuments,  and  Grindstones, 
rather  than  to  Quarrying,  and  covered  19  establishments,  in  5  cities  and 
vicinities,  employing  a  total  of  705  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Surfacing, 
including  Designing  and  Polishing,  Sawing,  Cutting,  Machine  Shop- 
ping, Forging  and  ^Blacksmithing,  and  the  Making  of  Grindstones. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports,  there  were,  for  the 
years  1910,  191 1  and  1912,  163  deaths  reported  among  Marble  and 
Stone  Cutters,  of  which  number  45  deaths  were  due  to  pulmonary 
tuberculosis,  or  27.61%  of  their  total  deaths.  This  rate  is  to  be  com- 
pared to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the 
State  combined,  for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  is  also  to 
be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged 
in  Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%. 

MATTRESSES  AND  BED  SPRINGS. 

The  Census  gives  38  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 961  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  6  establishments,  in  5  cities,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  205  wage-earners,  of  whom  152  were  males,  and  53  were 
females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazarodus  character  are  given 
under  Mattresses  and  Feathers,  Sewing  and  Finishing. 


8o 


PAPER  AND  WOOD  PULP. 


The  Census  gives  47  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying 4,673  wage-earners,  or  1.0%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in  the 
state.  Our  investigations  covered  13  establishments  (exclusive  of 
Roofing  Materials),  in  7  cities,  employing  a  total  of  2,967  wage-earners, 
of  whom  2,304  were  males  and  663  were  females.  The  chief  processes 
of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Rag  Sorting,  Paper 
Beating,  Paper  Machining,  Printing,  Forging  and  Blacksmithing, 
Mixing  Chemicals,  Sewing,  Engraving,  Gluing  and  Pasting. 

WOOD,  TURNED  AND  CARVED. 

The  Census  gives  83  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  covered 
2  establishments,  in  i  city,  employing  a  total  of  85  wage-earners,  of 
whom  81  were  males  and  4  were  females.  (See  also  Furniture  and 
Refrigerators.)  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found  to  be :  Wood-working,  Shellacing  and  Lacquering,  Stain- 
ing, and  Factory  Processes. 

INDUSTRIES    IN   WHICH   FATIGUE,    MONOTONY    OR    INACTIVITY 
ARE  PRINCIPAL  HEALTH-HAZARDS. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES. 

The  Census  gives  72  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  16,026  wage-earners,  or  3.6%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  This  is  the  fifth  industry  in  importance  in  the 
number  of  wage-earners  employed  in  the  State.  Our  investigations 
covered  29  establishments,  in  9  cities,  employing  a  total  of  11,806  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  6,727  were  males  and  5,079  were  females.  The 
chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be : 
Leather  Cutting,  Fitting,  Lasting,  Finishing  and  Packing. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports,  there  were  121 
deaths  reported  during  the  years  1910,  191 1  and  1912,  among  male  Boot 
and  Shoe  Factory  Operatives,  of  which  31  were  due  to  pulmonary 
tuberculosis,  or  25.62%  of  their  deaths.  According  to  the  same  Re- 
ports, there  were  only  31  deaths  reported  among  female  Boot  and  Shoe 
Factory  Operatives,  but  of  these  18  were  due  to  pulmonary  tubercu- 
losis, or  58.06%  of  their  deaths.  The  numbers  of  deaths  are  too  small 
to  be  given  much  significance.  These  rates  may  be  compared  to  the 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  State  com- 
bined, for  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  also  may  be  compared 


to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricul- 
tural Pursuits  during  the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%. 

The  following  paragraph  is  taken  from  the  Cincinnati  Tubercu- 
losis Hospital  Report  for  the  year  1912: 

"Twenty-seven  shoemakers  were  admitted.  This  occupation  seems 
to  be  especially  dangerous.  Ninety-five  per  cent  of  the  Union  Shoe- 
makers who  died  in  Cincinnati  in  1912  died  of  tuberculosis.  These  men 
work  at  benches  in  teams  of  five,  the  unfinished  product  being  passed 
to  the  next  man  and  so  on.  Each  man  occupies  about  two  and  one-half 
feet  of  the  bench.  Any  infected  case,  talking  or  coughing,  ejects  a 
spray  of  saliva  which  is  inhaled  by  his  neighbor.  This  man  is  known  as 
a  tuberculosis  carrier." 

CLOTHING  AND  TEXTILE   MANUFACTURING. 

(Including  Cotton  and  Woolen  Goods.) 

While  Men's  and  Women's  Clothing  are  separately  considered  in 
the  Census,  there  is  no  sufficient  reason  for  considering  them  sepa- 
rately in  this  report.  According  to  the  Census,  the  combined  industries 
represent  495  establishments,  with  a  total  of  18,793  wage-earners, 
making  it  the  fourth  in  importance  in  the  number  of  wage-earners  in 
the  state.  It  employes  4.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners.  If  the  Cotton 
Goods,  including  4  establishments  with  177  wage-earners,  and  the 
Woolen  Goods,  including  20  establishments  with  2,566  wage-earners, 
are  added,  the  Cothing  and  Textile  Manufacturing  Industry  becomes 
the  third  in  point  of  wage-earners  in  the  State.  Our  investigations 
covered  only  a  very  small  part  of  this  field,  but  we  have  endeavored  to 
spread  out  the  inquiry  into  enough  branches  of  the  industry  to  give  the 
chief  hygienic  facts.  Our  investigations  covered  17  establishments,  in 
6  cities,  employing  a  total  of  7,158,  of  whom  2,277  were  males  and 
4,881  were  females.  The  smallest  place  seen  employed  32  workers,  the 
largest,  1900.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  are 
conveniently  grouped  as  follows:  Wool  Sorting,  Washing  (including 
scouring,  drying,  shrinking).  Carding  (with  combing,  warping,  twist- 
ing, winding  and  spinning;  napping  and  fleecing).  Weaving  and  Knit- 
ting, Sewing,  Ironing  and  Pressing,  Cutting  Cloth,  and  General  Fac- 
tory Processes,  such  as  cleaning,  finishing,  burling,  mending,  splicing, 
inspecting,  packing,  boxing,  etc.  Designing  is  about  the  same  as  else- 
where described. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports,  there  were  in  the 
years  1910,  1911  and  1912,  522  deaths  reported  among  male  tailors,  of 
which  90  were  due  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  17.25%  of  their 
deaths.    According  to  the  same  Reports,  there  were  610  deaths  among 

6    o.  D. 


82 

females  (tailoresses,  dressmakers  and  seamstresses),  138  of  which 
were  due  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  22.62%  of  their  deaths.  There 
were,  in  addition,  some  deaths  from  tuberculosis  of  other  parts  than 
the  lungs,  making  the  total  tuberculosis  death  rate  still  higher.  These 
rates  are  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of 
all  occupations  in  the  State  combined,  for  the  same  years,  which  was 
13.3% ;  and  are  also  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis 
death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same 
period,  which  was  7.13%. 

FLAGS,   BANNERS,   REGALIA,   BADGES  AND  EMBLEMS. 

The  Census  gives  13  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  1,262  wage-earners,  or  0.3%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  2  establishments,  in 
2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  949  wage-earners,  of  whom  340  were 
males  and  609  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous 
character  were  found  to  be :  Sewing,  Ironing  and  Pressing,  Cutting 
Cloth,  Brass  Founding,  Electroplating,  Polishing  and  Buffing,  Shellac- 
ing and  Lacquering,  Painting  and  Varnishing,  Bronzing,  Artist's 
Work  (see  Printing),  Wood-working,  Gluing  and  Pasting.  Our  atten- 
tion was  drawn  to  some  sickness  complaints  among  one  or  two  felt  hat 
workers,  but  an  industrial  relationship  could  not  be  established.  In- 
vestigations showed  that  they  were  slightly  exposed  to  ammonia,  but 
not  to  mercury,  as  was  feared. 

IRON   AND   STEEL   BOLTS,    NUTS,   WASHERS   AND   RIVETS. 

(Not  Made  in  Steel  Works  or  Rolling  Mills.) 

The  Census  gives  17  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investigations  cov- 
ered 4  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,584  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  1,090  were  males  and  494  were  females.  The  chief 
processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be;  Forging 
and  Blacksmithing,  Tempering,  Galvanizing,  Electroplating,  Fur-' 
nacing.  Machine  Shopping  and  Wire  Manufacture. 

TOBACCO    MANUFACTURE. 

The  Census  gives  1,146  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total  of  12,631  wage-earners,  or  2.8%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  This  appears  to  be  the  eight  industry  in  point  of 
wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  27  establish- 
ments, in  13  cities,  employing  a  total  of  6,254,  of  whom  1,791  were 


83 

males  and  4,463  were  females.  This  industry  is  one  of  the  largest 
female-employing  in  the  state.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazard- 
our  character  were  found  to  be :  Tobacco  Moistening,  Stemming, 
Rolling,  and  Miscellaneous  Processes. 

According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  there  were,  for  the  years 
1910,  191 1  and  1912,  261  deaths  among  male  Tobacco  and  Cigar  Fac- 
tory Operatives,  of  whom  50  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or 
19.15%  of  their  deaths.  The  industrial  reports  for  females  were  too 
incomplete  to  be  taken  as  representative,  but  of  36  authentic  deaths 
reported,  16  were  due  to  tuberculosis,  or  44.44%.  The  Mortality  Sta- 
tistics of  the  U.  S.  Census  for  the  Registration  Area  in  1909  gives  the 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rates  for  male  Tobacco  and  Cigar  Fac- 
tory Operatives  as  24.3%,  and  for  females  as  40.5%. 


INDUSTRIES  IN  WHICH  HEAT,  COLD,  MOISTURE  AND  DAMPNESS 
ARE  THE  CHIEF  HEALTH-HAZARDS. 

BAKERIES. 

The  Census  gives  no  statistics  concerning  this .  industry.  Our  in- 
vestigations covered  8  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of 
974  wage-earners,  of  whom  653  were  males  and  141  were  females. 
The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  are  considered 
under  the  head  of  Baking  Processes.  A  large  number  of  the  workers 
are  engaged  in  what  may  be  considered  ordinary  Factory  Processes. 

qANNING    AND    PRESERVING. 

The  Census  ogives  107  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  a  total  of  2,009  wage-earners,  or  0.4%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  However,  these  are  pre-eminently  short-season 
workers.  Our  investigations  covered  13  establishments,  in  11  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  1,346  wage-earners,  of  whom  685  were  males  and 
661  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character 
were  found -to  be:  (Vegetable)  Preparing  and  Cooking,  and  Filling 
and  Sealing. 

CARBONATED  WATERS   AND  SOFT  DRINKS. 

The  Census  gives  no  figures  concerning  this  industry.  Our  in- 
vestigations covered  3  establishments,  in  2  cities,  employing  a  total  of 
24  workers,  all  males.  The  processes  of  concern  were  (Carbonated 
Water)  Compounding  and  Bottling. 


84 


CONFECTIONERY. 

The  Census  gives  114  establishments  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
of  confections,  employing  a  total  of  2,493  wage-earners,  or  0.6%  of 
the  total  wage-earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  14 
establishments  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,266  wage-earners,  of 
whom  362  were  males  and  904  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of 
health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:  Confectionery  Processes 
and  Chocolate  Dipping. 

GLASS   MANUFACTURE. 

The  Census  gives  45  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  10,159  wage-earners,  or  2.3%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state,  making  it  the  eleventh  industry  in  importance  in 
point  of  employes  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  28  estab- 
lishments, in  16  cities,  employing  a  total  of  9,606  wage-earners,  of 
whom  8,742  were  males  and  864  were  females.  Under  this  heading  we 
have  included  manufacturers  of  glass  table  ware,  bottles,  shades, 
incandescent  blubs  (the  blowing  only),  tubing,  window  glass,  orna- 
ments and  novelties.  Under  a  separate  heading  is  included  the  indus- 
tries engaged  solely  in  glass  cutting,  mirror  making,  and  art-glass 
manufacture.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were 
found  to  be :  Glass  Ingredient  Mixing,  Glass  Blowing  by  Hand,  Glass 
Blowing  by  Machinery,  Glass  Pressing,  Glass  Cutting,  Grinding  and 
Polishing,  Glass  Etching,  Glass  Crucible  Manufacture  (about  the  same 
as  Sagger  Making  and  Mold  Making  in  Pottery,  q.  v.),  and  Art  Glass 
Manufacture. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  years  1910, 
191 1  and  1912,  there  were  188  deaths  among  glassworkers,  of  which 
number  40  were  due  to  tuberculosis,  or  21.28%  of  the  total  deaths. 
Thirty-five  of  the  deaths  were  due  to  tuberculosis  of  the  lungs.  This 
rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death  rate  of  all 
occupations  in  the  State  combined,  for  the  same  years,  which  was 
13.3%  ;  and  is  also  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis  death 
rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits  during  the  same  period, 
which  was  7.13%. 

ICE  MANUFACTURE. 

The  Census  gives  97  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  892  wage-earners,  or  0.2%  of  the  total  wage-earners 
in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  12  establishments,  in  3  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  280  wage-earners,  all  males.  This  does  not  in- 
clude Ice  Manufacture  by   Breweries    (see  Liquors,   Malted).     The 


85 

chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be:     Ice 
Manufacturing,  and,  in  the  case  of  some  firms,  Bottling. 

IRON    AND   STEEL    BLAST    FURNACES. 

The  Census  gives  40  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  7,295  wage-earners,  or  1.6%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  6  establishments,  in 
3  cities  (in  addition  to  those  noted  in  connection  with  Iron  and  Steel 
Rolling  Mills),  employing  a  total  of  2,100  wage-earners,  all  males. 
The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be : 
Blast  Furnacing  and  Gas-producing. 

IRON  AND  STEEL  FORCINGS. 

The  Census  gives  30  establishments  engaged  in  this  general  indus- 
try, but  does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.  Our  investiga- 
tions covered  8  establishments,  in  which  a  large  percentage  of  workers 
were  engaged  at  forging  or  welding,  in  5  cities,  employing  a  total  of 
886  wage-earners,  of  whom  875  were  males  and  11  were  females,  the 
latter  engaged  in  core-making.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazard- 
ous character  were  found  to  be :  Iron  Founding,  Core-Making,  Pud- 
dling, Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Machine  Shopping,  Welding,  Riv- 
eting, Tempering,  Wood-working. 

IRON    AND    STEEL    WORKS    AND    ROLLING    MILLS. 

The  Census  gives  75  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  em- 
ploying a  total  of  38,586  wage-earners,  or  8.6%  of  the  total  wage- 
earners  in  the  state ;  in  point  of  wage-earners  this  is  the  second  indus- 
try in  the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  23  establishments,  in  13 
cities,  employing  a  total  of  28,195  wage-earners,  all  males.  (These 
figures  include  524  at  galvanizing,  in  7  firms.)  Also  the  galvanizing 
(103  males)  and  tinning  (104  males  and  12  females)  departments  in 
3  other  large  firms  were  seen.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazard- 
ous character  were  found  to  be :  Blast  Furnacing,  Bessemer  Furnac- 
ing, Open  Hearth  Furnacing,  Gas-producing,  Iron  Founding,  Brass 
Founding,  Welding,  Tempering,  Metal  Grinding,  Machine  Shopping, 
Forging  and  Blacksmithing,  Furnacing,  Hot  Rolling  and  Shaping, 
Cold  Rolling,  Painting  and  Stenciling,  Core-Making,  Wood-working, 
and  Chemical  Manufacturing.  See  also  Wire  Manufacture,  Foundry 
and  Machine  Shop  Processes,  Galvanizing  and  Tinning. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports  during  the  years 
1910,  191 1  and  1912,  there  were  710  deaths  reported  among  Iron  and 


"  86 

Steel  Workers,  of  whom  -ji  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or 
17-69% •  This  rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis 
death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  State  combined,  for  the  same 
years,  which  was  13.3%  ;  and  is  also  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary 
tuberculosis  death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits  dur- 
ing the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%. 

(See  Special  Report  of  Sick  Benefit  Association  of  an  Iron  and 
Steel  Company  —  Part  R"..  Introduction.) 

LAUNDERING. 

The  Census  gives  no  figures  concerning  this  T non-manufacturing) 
industry.  Our  investigations  covered  28  establishments,  in  4  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  2,394  wage-earners,  of  whom  527  were  males  and 
1,867  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  charac- 
ter were  found  to  be  :  Listing,  Sorting  and  ^larking,  Washing,  Man- 
gling, and  Ironing.  A  few  laundries  were  also  engaged  in  Dry  Clean- 
ing and  Dyeing  {q.  v.). 

According  to  the  Ohio  A'ital  Statistics  Reports  during  the  years 
1910,  191 1  and  1912.  there  were  149  deaths  among  Laundresses,  of 
which  35  were  due  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  23.49%  of  their 
deaths.  This  rate  is  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuberculosis 
death  rate  of  all  occupations  in  the  State  combined,  for  the  same  years, 
which  was  13.3%.;  and  is  also  to  be  compared  to  the  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis death  rate  of  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits  during 
the  same  period,  which  was  7.13%. 

A  number  of  laundries  were  found  to  have  good  lunch  rooms  or 
restaurants  (supplying  coffee  free),  lockers  and  clothes  rooms;  also 
to  have  anti-spitting  placards  pasted  up,  and  otherwise  to  take  a 
decided  interest  in  the  health  and  welfare  of  their  employes. 

MALT   LIQUORS    (bREWING). 

The  Census  gives  105  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry, 
employing  4.356  wage-earners,  or  1.0%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in 
the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  11  establishments,  in  3  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  1,055  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  chief  proc- 
esses of  health-hazardous  character  were  found  to  be :  Brewing,  Bot- 
tling, Keg  Filling,  Washing,  and  Ice  Manufacturing. 

The  following  is  abstracted  from  an  Editorial  in  The  Brewery 
Workers'  Journal,  January  17,  1914: 

Our  Dead  in  1913.  The  number  of  deaths  occurring  among  the  members 
of  our  International  Union  for  the  year  1913  is  considerably  higher  than  in  the 


^7 


year  previous.  The  cause  for  this  seemingly  unfavorable  condition  is  the  fact 
that  last  year  those  local  secretaries  who  formerly  did  not  pay  close  attention 
to  their  duties,  have  sent  in  their  death  notices  more  promptly.  So  for  the 
first  time  since  these  statistics  are  published  it  can  be  said  that  the  figures 
given  below  are  as  nearly  correct  as  possible. 

Reports  of  732  deaths  were  received  from  179  local  unions  with  an  aver- 
age membership  during  the  year  of  42,218.  The  death  rate  is  accordingly  17.34 
per  thousand,  or  3.11  per  thousand  higher  than  in  1912,  where  180  local  unions 
with  a  membership  of  40,895  reported  581  deaths,  or  14.23  per  thousand. 

The  six  leading  causes  of  death  during  1913  were :  Consumption,  acci- 
dent, pneumonia  and  bronchitis,  heart  disease,  cancer  and  liver  and  kidney 
trouble.  Then  follow  suicide,  dropsy,  stomach  trouble,  paralysis,  heat,  appendi- 
citis, rheumatism,  murder  and  old  age,  in  the  order  named.  In  the  following 
tables  the  figures  given  in  parenthesis  are  those  for  1912. 


Of  the  732  deaths  reported,  there  were  caused  by: 

Consumption    167 — 22 . 

Accident 89—12, 

Pneumonia  and   Bronchitis 87 — 11 . 

Heart  Disease    73 — 10 , 

Cancer    39—  5 , 

Liver  and  Kidney  Complaint 35 — -  4, 

Suicide    30—4 

Dropsy    29—  3 

Stomach   Trouble    21 —  2 , 

Paralysis 19 —  2 

Heat   5—  0 , 

Appendicitis    5 — ■  0 

Rheumatism    5 — ■  0 

Murder    3-0 

Old  Age   2-0 

Miscellaneous  Diseases   87 — 11 , 

Cause  of  Death  not  given  in  report 36 —  4, 

There  died  at  the  age  of : 

Under  20  years 7 —  0 

Between  20  and  30  years 79—10, 

Between  30  and  40  years 141—19, 

Between  40  and  50  years 243 — 33 , 

Between  50  and  60  years 102 — 26. 

Over  60  years 62—  8, 

Age  not  given  in  report 8—  1 , 

The  deceased  were  of  the  following  descent : 

German    

Irish     

American 

Austrian    

Swiss   

Bohemian   

All  others 


81% 
16% 
88% 
00% 
33% 
78% 
10'% 
96% 
87% 
59% 
68% 
68% 
68% 
41% 
27% 
88% 
92% 


,96% 
^79% 
26% 
20% 
23% 
.47% 
09% 


12 


21.34%) 
78—13.43%) 
50—  8.81%) 
78—13.43%) 


17— 
34— 

28— 
25— 
11— 
20— 


2.92%) 
5.85%) 
4.82%) 
4.30%) 
1.89%) 
3.44%) 
4-  0.69%) 
4—  0.69%) 
9-  1.55%) 

2—  0.34%) 

3-  0.53%) 
7-3-12.56%) 
21—  3..  61%) 


2-  0.34%) 

59—10.16%) 

124—21.34%) 

197—33.90%) 

133—22.89%) 

49—  8.44%) 

17—  2.93%) 


430 
109 
103 
14 
10 
10 
56 


(369) 

(  65) 

(  62) 

(  10) 

(  8) 

(  13) 

(  50) 


Rheumatism  caused  the  death  of  five  members — three  brewers,  one  bottler 
and  one  laborer.  Five  members  succumbed  to  excessive  heat — one  brewer,  one 
bottler,  one  driver,  one  fireman  and  one  cooper. 

The  percentage  of  the  three  most  numerous  categories  of  brewery  workers 
participating  in  the  six  leading  causes  of  death  during  last  year  is  as  follows: 

Of  the  246  deaths  among  brewers,  166,  or  67.46%,  were  caused  by — 

Consumption   59—23.98%  (35—17.00%) 

Accident    32—13.00%  (25—12.12%) 

Cancer  23—  9.35%>  ( ) 

Pneumonia 22— 8-.94%  (19—9.23%) 

Heart   Disease    22—8.94%  (37—17.96%) 

Liver  and  Kidney  Complaint 8—  3.25%  (10—  4.86%) 

Of  the  212  deaths  among  drivers,   150.  or  70.75%,  were  caused  by — 

Consumption    46—21.70%  (33—18.96%) 

Accident    31—14.62%  (32—18.89%) 

Pneumonia    30—14.15%  (16—9.20%) 

Heart   Disease    23—10.85%  (18—10.34%) 

Liver  and  Kidney  Complaint 15—  7.08%  (10—  5.75%) 

Cancer  5—2.35%  ( ) 

Of  the  125  deaths  among  bottlers.  79,  or  63.20%,  were  caused  by- — 

Consumption    28—22.40%  (29—31.52%) 

Pneumonia  ' 14—11.20%  (10—10.87%) 

Heart  Disease    14—11.20%  (10—10.87%) 

Accidents    11—  8.80%o  (  5—  5.43%) 

Liver  and  Kidney  Complaint 8—  6.40%  (  5 —  5.43%) 

Cancer    I 4_  3.20%  ( ) 

While  in  1912  dropsy  was  among  the  six  leading  causes  of  death,  in  1913 
cancer  was  more  frequent.  The  order  of  the  ten  most  frequent  causes  of  death 
are  as  follows:  Consumption,  in  1913,  1  (in  1912,  1;  accident,  2  (2);  pneu- 
monia, 3  (4)  ;  heart  disease,  4  (3)  ;  cancer,  5  (9)  ;  liver  and  kidney  complaint, 
6  (5)  ;.  suicide,  7  (6)  ;  dropsy,  8  (7)  ;  stomach  trouble,  9  (10)  ;  paralysis,  10  (8). 

SOAP    MANUFACTURING. 

The  Census  gives  44  establishments  engaged  in  -this  industry, 
employing  1.774  wage-earners,  or  0.4%  of  the  total  wage-earners  in 
the  state.  Our  investigations  covered  12  establishments,  in  3  cities, 
employing  a  total  of  2,020  wage-earners,  of  whom  1.57S  were  males 
and  442  were  females.  The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  char- 
acter were  found  to  be:  Soap  Manufacturing  and  By-Products,  Mix- 
ing Chemicals,  Oil  Refining,  some  specialty  processes  as  well  as  Ma- 
chine Shopping,  AA^ood-working,  Printing  and  Labeling. 

WIRE    AND    WIRE    WORK. 

The  Census  gives  66  establishments  engaged  in  this  industry,  but 
does  not  state  the  number  of  wage-earners.     Our  investigations'  cov- 


89 

ered  6  establishments,  in  4  cities,  employing  a  total  of  1,972  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  1,908  were  males  and  64  were  females.  Of  these 
plants  2  were  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  wire  and  4  in  wire  prod- 
ucts. The  chief  processes  of  health-hazardous  character  were  found 
to  be:  Furnacing,  Hot  Shaping,  Wire  Drawing,  Fluxing  (Flour- 
Water  Vats),  Pickling,  Tinning,  Electroplating,-  Galvanizing,  Paint- 
ing, Iron  Founding,  Brass  Founding,  Machine  Shopping,  and  Wood- 
working.    (See  also  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop. Produces.) 


INDUSTRIES  IN  WHICH  THERE  IS  A  LIABILITY  TO  CONTRACTING 
COMMUNICABLE  OR  INFECTIOUS  DISEASES. 

It  is  impossible  to  attempt  to  cover  all  of  the  relations  between 
communicable  diseases  and  industry,  or  even  to  touch  upon  all  of  the 
most  important. 

We  give  in  this  place  the  results  of  some  special  studies  and  some 
casual  observations  which  have  been  made  in  the  State  during  the 
period  of  this  survey. 

INDUSTRIAL   TUBERCULOSIS. 
("Reprinted  from  Monthly  Bulletin,  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health,  April,  1914.) 

Industrial  tuberculosis  is  a  term  which  is  being  used  to  associate  the 
occupation  of  an  adult  person  as  a  distinct  factor  in  the  causation  of  his  or 
her  consumption.  In  the  propaganda  against  the  great  white  plague,  every 
effort  conceivable  is  being  directed  toward  the  bettering  of  housing  and  living 
conditions,  the  correction  of  habits  and  the  elimination  of  moral  hazards. 
Almost  to  the  present  time  little  constructive  thought  has  been  given  to  the 
10  hours  or  so  which  the  individual  S'pends  in  occupational  pursuit.  If  foul 
air,  abnormal  humidity,  fatigue,  inactivity,  poisons,  etc.,  predispose  to  tuber- 
culosis between  6 :00  P.  M.  and  6 :00  A.  M.,  must  they  not  also  during  the 
day  when  heat  and  dust  are  also  added,  and  respiration  and  other  vital  pro- 
cesses are  much  accentuated? 

This  situation  is  remarkable,  for  a  little  investigation  shows  that  where 
the  factors  at  which  the  propagandists  are  chiefly  aiming  remain  constant, 
and  perhaps  excellent,  workers  in  certain  pursuits  succumb  to  tuberculosis  in 
numbers  suggesting  a  black  plague.  For  example,  professional  men,  men  and 
women  in  agricultural  pursuits,  millers,  quarrymen  and  carpenters  have  a  death 
rate  from  consumption,  which  according  to  statistics,  lies  between  6.6%  and 
10.1%.  On  the  other  hand,  clerks,  book-keepers,  telephone  girls,  stenographers, 
teachers,  textile-workers,  tobacco-,  glass-,  brass-,  rubber-,  and  pottery-workers, 
printers,  stone-cutters  and  the  like,  range  between   10  and  43</{.. 

In   our  'present  concept,   tuberculosis   is   due   to — 

(1)  The  presence  of  the  Bacillus  Tuberculosis.  Carelessness  makes  it 
almost   omnipresent. 

(2)  Predisposition,   which   covers  iTcrcdity  and   congenital   defects, 


90 

(3)  Infantile  and  early  childhood  infection,  when  the  disease  is  highly 
communicable,  but  deaths  are  comparatively  few. 

(4)  Health  hazards,  which  customs,  ignorance  and  bravado  suddenly 
magnify  during  the  youth  of  both  sexes,  and  which  so  lower  the  resistance 
as  to  re-awaken  the  childhood  infection  or  invite — 

(5)  Adult  infection.  This  seems  only  possible  when  damaged  lung 
tissues   receive   a  constant   infection   through   the   air. 

By  all  means  (1),  (3)  and  (4)  are  the  mighty  factors.  With  industry 
we  find  that  although  the  vast   majority  of   persons  have  received  their  infec- 


FiG.  33.     Industrial  Tuberculosis. 

Middle-aged  skilled  workman  incapacitated  by  consumption,  the  chief  promoting 
factors  being  dust  and  fumes  in  his  work. 


tion  during  infancy  and  childhood  (perhaps  90%),  the  factor  (4),  which  begins 
with,  and  is  so  infinitely  bound  up  with  industry,  to  which  may.  perhaps,  be 
added  (5) — so  often  due  to  over-crowding  in  industrial  places,  the  lack  of 
cuspidors,  and  the  presence  of  the  consumptive  spitter — these  two  explain  why 
the  girl  who  remains  at  home,  or  the  man  who  follows  a  fresh  air  industry, 
as  in  the  quarry,  are  comparatively  immune,  whereas  the  sister  and  brother  jn 
the  office,  factory  or  mill  appear  to  be  shorn  of  resistance, 


9' 


ILLUSTRATION    OF    WHAT    IS    MEANT    BY    INDUSTRIAL    TUBERCULOSIS. 

(Reprinted   from   Monthly   Bulletin^  Ohio   State   Board   of   Health,    September, 

1914.) 

We  give  below  the  results  of  a  routine  investigation  of  a  plant  according 
to  the  outline  of  industrial  health-hazards  as  published  in  the  April  issue  of 
this  Bulletin.  After  a  perusal  of  the  findings  given,  which  are  those  of  an 
actual  case,  is  there  any  wonder  that  six  cases  of  consumption  have  been  re- 
ported to  the  State  Board  of  Health  within  a  few  months'  period  among  the 
workers  in  this  establishment ! 

Features.  Health-Hazards. 

Establishment    X. 

Location     C. 

Industry    Woodworking. 

Employes 390  men ,  50  youths  under  20. 

Modern  methods   Fairly  so. 

Unionism    Open  Shop. 

Attitude  toward  workers Indifferent. 

Type  of  workers Largely  ignorant  foreigners. 

Retention  of  workers Not  good. 

Health  appliances  A  blower  system,   but  not  kept  in  work- 
ing order. 

Health  instructions  to  employes None. 

Sick  benefits,   etc     7 None. 

Death  benefits   Small  order,    maintained  by  employes. 

\'\'ork  hours   10  per  day,  one-half  hour  noon ,  no  other 

recesses. 

Overtime    Occasional. 

Number  of  skilled  workmen Only  small  per  cent. 

Age  groups  Under  20—50 ;  20  to  40—310 ;  over  40—30. 

Construction  of  buildin^• Old  factory  type,  low  ceilings,  many  dark 

quarters. 

Workers   at  one  process   exposed  to 
hazards   of  another About  100. 

Dust   Wood  dust,   air  thick  with  it. 

Dirt  Floor,     walls    .and     windows     apparently 

rarely  cleaned. 

Dampness    No. 

Darkness    Three-fourt?hs    of    workers    are    in    poorly 

lighted  quarters. 

Air Still,   close,   stufify. 

Heat    No  factor. 

Cold No  factor. 

Fatigue    Fair  amount  due  to  piece  work ,   speeding 

up,  constant  standing,  faulty  postures, 
jarring  processes,  body  pressures  and 
loud  noises. 

Inactivity    Negative. 


92 

Features.  Health-Hazards. 

Infection    Great   liability    due   to    crowding,    use   of 

common  cups,  towels,  improper  wash- 
ing places  and  closets,  spitting  on 
floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  frequent 
trivial  injuries,  no  selection  of  work- 
ers, no  physical  examination,  no  med- 
ical supervision. 

Poisons   Negative. 

Alcoholism  inducement   Great,    due   to    poor    quality   and    meager 

supply  of  drinking  water,  to  proximity 
of  saloons,  heedlessness  of  employer, 
absence  of  workers'  efficiency  depart- 
ment, and  to  subjection  to  dust,  dirt, 
darkness,  bad  air  and  fatigue. 

Workmen's  complaints Chiefly,  constant  breathing  of  dust,  com- 
pelled to  work  alongside  of  men  who 
are  consumptive  and  careless  in  habits. 

Diseases  reported  to  State  Board  of 

Health    SIX    CASES    of    consumption    within    a 

period  of  4  months  time. 

Two  dangerous  health-hazards  should  be  abolished  at  once  in  this  estab- 
lishment. The  first  is  wood  dust,  which,  though  the  plant  is  fairly  well 
equipped  with  blower  systems,  is  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air  because  it  is 
nobody's  business  in  the  plant  to  see  that  the  blower  systems  are  in  continual 
working  order.  The  second  great  hazard  is  the  lack  of  a  medical  supervision 
of  the  employes  to  root  out  the  consumptives  who  are  still  at  work  with  no 
cuspidors  in  which  to  spit  out  their  tubercular  sputum.  There  are  some  other 
health-hazards  which  should  have  attention,  but  these  constitute  the  major 
ones. 

TRACHOMA  OR  GRANULATED  EYELIDS. 

The  following  is  taken  from  an  editorial  in  the  Jour.  A.  M.  A., 
May  i6,  1914,  page  1564,  while  the  "Conclusions"  and  "Recommenda- 
tions" are  taken  from  the  original  article  in  Public  Health  Reports, 
Vol.  29,  No.  10,  March  26,  1914: 

"During  the  past  few  years  reports  regarding  trachoma  among  the  reser- 
vation Indians  and  the  mountain  population  of  Kentucky  and  other  states  have 
stimulated  interest  in  this  disease.  Investigation  has  shown  that  it  affects  many 
communities,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  existing  in  a  number  of  instances 
among  school  children.  Attention  has  been  directed  to  the  great  industrial 
establishments  where  large  numbers  of  foreign  laborers  are  employed.  In  each 
instance,  when  a  focus  of  the  diesase  has  been  found,  its  origin  has  been  care- 
fully investigated  so  that  preventive  measures  might  be  instituted.  J.  W. 
Schereschewsky  of  the  Public  Health  Service  has  examined  the  5,962  employes 
of  the  Youngstown  (Ohio)  Sheet  &  Tube  Company  with  reference  to  the 
prevalence  of  trachoma.  He  found  among  them  seventy-six  cases,  a  rate  of 
prevalance  of   1.3  per  cent.     Nineteen  cases   of   suspicious   conjunctivitis   were 


93 

also  observed.  Of  the  employes  28.5  per  cent  were  Americans.  Among  the 
1,700  Americans  the  rate  of  prevalence  was  0.23  per  cent,  and  among  the 
seven  foreign  nations  represented  the  rate  ranged  from  0.9  to  3.0.  After 
careful  inquiry  as  to  the  time  these  men. had  been  in  the  United  States, 
Schereschewsky  expresses  the  opinion  that  with  but  few  exceptions  the  disease 
was  contracted  subsequent  to  landing  in  this  country,  and  in  the  great  majority 
of  instances  while  the  men  were  employed  in  East  Youngstown.  It  was  not 
thought   that   the   disease   had   been   spread   to   any  great   extent   by   conditions 


Fig.  34.     Granulated  Eyelids. 

Partial  blindness  due  to  trachoma  or  granulated  eyelids — a  disease  easily 
spread  by  common  towels,  also  by  allowing  a  worker  having  the  disease  to 
attempt  to  remove  a  foreign  body  from  the  eye  of  a  fellow-worker. 


in  the  mills.  Close  physical  contact  and  the  use  of  the  common  towel  and 
hand  basin  are  known  to  be  favorable  to  the  spread  of  trachoma,  but  these 
conditions  do  not  prevail  in  the  works  of  the  company.  Most  of  the  foreigners 
do  not  wash  in  the  mills,  and  those  Americans  of  the  skilled  labor  class  who 
do,  have  their  own  buckets  or  vessels  and  towels.  One  possible  source  of 
infection  in  the  mills  is  the  haliit  nf  the  workmen  of  removing  from  each 
other's  eyes  foreign  l)odies  tiiat  may  lodge  therein,  although  they  are  instructed 
to  apply  to  the  medical  scrxice  for  relief.     Attention  was  directed  lo  the  living 


94 

conditions  of  the  workers,  and  here  Schereschewsky  discovered  the  chief  source 
of  infection.  Many  of  the  lodging-houses  of  the  workers  were  much  over- 
crowded. Thus,  in  one  instance  twenty-three  lodgers  were  found  in  a  four-room 
house,  as  many  as  ten  or  twelve  in  one  room.  Insanitary  conditions  prevailed 
in  East  Youngstown  as  well  as  in  the  immediate  surroundings  of  the  men. 
The  presence  of  recent  cases  showed  that  the  disease  was  gradually  spreading 
from  foci  of  chronic  cases  in  a  state  of  acute  exacerbation,  some  of  which 
Schereschewsky  observed.  In  most  instances,  perhaps,  as  at  East  Youngstown, 
the  cases  are  among  laborers  from  foreign  countries  who  have  been  in  the 
United  State  a  comparatively  short  time.  The  inspection  at  the  ports  of  entry 
serves  to  detect  ^practically  all  cases  that  have  reached  a  stage  at  which  diag- 
nosis is  possible ;  an  immigrant  when  he  lands  may  have  the  infection  in  such 
an  undeveloped  state  that  it  cannot  be  detected  and  he  may  then  in  a  short 
time  become  a  focus  for  the  spread  of  the  disease.  The  employers  of  labor  in 
the  great  industrial  establishments  should  be  warned  of  the  seriousness  of 
trachoma,  and  especially  of  its  liability  to  spread.  The  health  authorities  of  the 
cities  and  towns  where  these  establishments  are  located  should  realize  their 
responsibility  in  this  matter.  Bad  housing,  overcrowding  and  lax  personal  and 
community  hygiene  -will  contribute  to  the  spread  of  this  highly  infectious  and 
disabling  but  wholly  preventable  disease. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

1.  The  origin  of  the  prevalence  of  trachoma  among  the  employees  of 
the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.  is  readily  accounted  for  by  the  presence 
among  them  of  chronic  cases  of  the  disease,  some  of  which  are  even  now  in 
a  state  of  acute  exacerbation. 

2.  The  crowded  insanitary  condition  of- the  lodging  houses,  where  a  large 
proportion  of  the  employees  live,  amply  accounts  for  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

3.  The  presence  of  recent  cases  of  trachomatous  infection  shows  that 
under  existing  conditions  the  disease  is  gradually  being  spread.  Unless  meas- 
ures are  now  undertaken  for  its  control  the  prediction  seems  justified  that  the 
disease  will  gradually  gain  such  headway  as  perhaps  to  prevail  in  epidemic  form. 

4.  It  seems  evident  that  so  long  as  the  present  insanitary  conditions 
obtain  in  East  Youngstown  the  control  of  trachoma  will  be  difficult  or  im- 
possible imless  measures  to  this  end  go  hand  in  hand  with  betterment  in  the 
local  sanitary  conditions. 

5.  The  present  machinery  for  the  control  of  the  situation  is  unsatis- 
factory. The  local  health  officer  of  East  Youngstown  is  a  layman,  without 
the  knowledge  or  training  in  sanitation  to  enable  him  to  cope  with  the  situa- 
tion. 

The  town  itself  lacks  completely  the  fundamentals  for  sanitation,  namely, 
a  public  water  supply,  water  carriage  sewerage  system,  system  of  garbage  col- 
lection and  disposal,  physical  supervision  of  school  children,  proper  grading  of 
streets,  and  provision  for  the  disposal  of  the  surface  washings  and  storm 
waters,  even  the  numbering  of  houses,  so  that  the  location  of  cases  of  com- 
municable diseases  can  be  recorded.  There  are  also  no  local  dispensaries  or 
hospitals,  except  the  emergency  hospital  of  the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co., 
which  is  located  in  the  plant.. 


95 


RECOMMENDATIONS. 

In  view  of  the  fact  that  some  80  per  cent  of  the  taxes  of  East  Youngs- 
town  are  paid  by  the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  and  that  60  to  70  per  cent 
of  their  personnel,  including  nearly  all  the  foreign  element,  live  in  East  Youngs- 
town, it  would  seem  as  though  the  Youngstown  company  is  more  directly 
interested  in  the  sanitary  conditions  in  East  Youngstown  than  anyone  else. 

The  efficiency  of  its  employes  is  affected,  not  only  by  their  environment 
when  at  work  but  also  by  that  of  their  homes.  It  is  evident  that  when  workmen 
are  exposed  to  insanitary  surroundings  during  their  period  of  rest,  not  only  do 
they  incur  the  danger  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  but  their  ability  to 
recuperate  from  their  previous  labor  is  adversely  affected  by  the  prevailing 
unhealthful  conditions. 

Any  effective  treatment  of  the  situation  must  necessarily  include  specific 
measures  to  be  adopted  at  the  mills  and  also  the  betterment  .of  the  sanitary 
conditions  in  East  Yourgstown  if  permanent  results  are  to  be  secured. 

The  recommendations  made,  therefore,  related  to  two  separate  ends;  first, 
the  treatment  of  the  situation  at  the  mills  and,  second,  the  sanitation  of  East 
Youngstov/n. 

Besides  calling  the  attention  of  the  com.pany  to  the  usual  means  for  pre- 
venting trachoma,  such  as  avoiding  the  use  of  the  common  towel  and  hand 
basin  and  the  use  of  the  same  bed  by  two  or  more  individuals,  -the  following 
special  recommendations  v.'ere  made  for  the  company  to  put  into  effect  at  once  : 

1.  No  tirne  should  be  lost  in  securing  a  competent  physician  on  full  time, 
a;  an  adequate  compensation,  who  should  perform  the  following  duties  : 

(a)  Make  a  complete  mental  and  physical  examination  of  persons  apply- 
ing for  employment  with  the  company. 

(b)  Give  competent  treatment  to  any  individuals  found  to  be  afflicted 
with  trachoma  or  other  communicable  diseases. 

(c)  If  the  necessary  arrangements  could  be  made  this  physician  could 
also  be  the  health  officer  for  East  Youngstown  and  supervise  its  sanitar}'  con- 
dition. 

"2.  A  competent  graduate  trained  nurse  should  be  secured  who  would  be 
able  to  administer  treatment  to  trachoma  cases  under  this  physician's  direction. 

3.  All  individuals  named  in  a  list  furnished  the  company  who  are  suf- 
fering from  trachoma,  and  with  respect  to  whom  the  notation  "acute,"  ''recent," 
or  "severe"  was  made,  should  be  segregated,  preferably  in  some  building  con- 
trolled by  the  company,  and  there  furnished  competent  medical  treatment  until 
such  time  as  the  infectiousness  of  the  disease  has  been  removed.  They  could 
then  be  allowed  to  return  to  work  conditionally  upon  their  reporting  daily  to 
the  hospital   for  inspection  and  treatment. 

4.  All  persons  suffering  from  trachoma,  including  those  segregated  in  the 
manner  just  referred  to,  should,  upon  their  return  to  work,  be  required  to  re- 
port for  inspection  and  treatment  tv.'ice  daily  at  the  hospital.  It  was  suggested, 
in  order  to  secure  easy  compliance  with  this  recommendation,  that  these  per- 
sons secure  their  time  cards  at  the  hospital  and  the  fact  of  their  having  there 
reported,  on  going  in  and  out,  1)0  attested  by  a  special  stamp  kept  at  the 
hospital. 

5.  In  order  to  prevent  the  development  of  subsequent  cases,  foremen, 
or  tho.se  in  charge  of  gangs,  should  be  required  to  submit  semi-weekly  reports 


96 

as  to  the  appearance  of  the  eyes  of  men  under  their  control.  Such  reports 
should  not  be  perfunctory,  but  should  state  affirmatively  or  negatively  whether 
they  have  observed  any  cases  of  reddened  or  sore  eyes  in  any  of  the  men 
under  their  charge.  Whenever  the  eyes  of  any  workmen  appear  red  or  sore 
such  workmen   should  be  sent  at  once  to   the  hospital   for  examination. 

The  following  recommendations  as  to  the  improvement  of  the  sanitary 
conditions  of  East  Youngstown  were  made,  their  realization  to  constitute  part 
of  the  future  policy  of  the  company,  as  an  equivalent  for  the  large  taxes  paid 
by  the  corporation  : 

1.  The  provision  of  an  adequate  and  pure  water  supply. 

2.  The  installation  of  a  water-carriage  sewer  system. 

3.  The  abolition  of  insanitary  privies. 

4.  The  installation  of  catch  basins  and  sewers  for  disposal  of  storm 
waters. 

5.  The  installation  of  a  system  of  garbage  collection  and  disposal,  with 
ordinances  as  to  the  use  of  sanitary  garbage  cans  with  tight-fitting  covers. 

6.  Restriction  of  overcrowding  in  lodging  houses  and  regulation  of  their 
sanitary  condition  by  a  system  of  licensing  and  inspection. 

7.  Numbering  of  houses  and  grading  of   streets. 

8.  Physical  supervision  of  the  children  in  the  schools. 

9.  The  appointment  of  a  properly  qualified  physician  as  health  officer. 

10.  Establishment  of  a  hospital  and  dispensary  in  East  Youngstown. 

[Note.  —  It  is  gratifying  to  learn  from  a  letter  received  from  Mr.  Woltz, 
the  director  of  safety  of  the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  that  the  recom- 
mendations in  regard  to  the  treatment  of  trachoma  cases  have  already  been 
carried  into  effect.]" 

HOOKWORM    DISEASE. 

We  have  been  unable  to  attack  this  problem  at  all,  principally  be- 
cause of  the  long  continued  coal  miners'  strike.  Coal  mining  is  the 
-most  likely  industry  in  the  state  with  which  it  is  associated.  This 
subject,  also,  would  require  a  rather  intensive  study,  occupying  at  least 
several  weeks,  and  requiring  the  time  of  two  physicians  from  the  office 
during  most  of  that  time. 

Since  the  disease  is  very  prevalent  in  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia, 
there  is  hardly  any  question  of  i'.s  existence,  at  least  in  the  southern 
counties  of  Ohio.  There  is  some  cjuestion,  however,  of  its  extent 
among  coal  miners  or  other  workers  in  this  State,  since  the  methods 
and  processes  of  mining  are  qrfite  dissimilar  to  those  carried  on  in . 
Virginia,  the  principal  difference  being  that  all  Ohio  mines  are  slope 
or  drift  mines'  instead  of  shaft  mines,  and  while  there  are  a  great  many 
mines,  none  are  individually  very  extensive. 

The  following  is  copied  from  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Ohio 
State  Board  of  Health  for  the  year  1913,  p.  718,  and  serves  to  show 
the  existence  of  the  disease  in  the  State  at  a  point  about  half-way 
between  Cleveland  and  Columljus : 


97 

''On  August  2,  l!llo,  in  compliance  with  the  request  of  a  physician,  the 
epidemiologist  visited  Washington  Township,  Holmes  County,  to  investigate 
some  supposed   cases  of  ankylostomiasis. 

"His  report  follows  : 

"A  physician  from  Loudonville  found  a  number  of  persons  in  Washington 
Township,  'Holmes  County,  Avho  were  suffering  from  a  low  grade  anemia. 
These  patients  had  a  staring  expression,  showed  great  weakness,  pot  belly  and 
other  symptoms  suggestive  of  hookworm  disease.  The  history  of  these  cases 
showed  that  the  first  case  had  contracted  the  disease  in  Indiana,  where  he 
suffered  from  a  pustular  affection  of  the  soles  of  the  feet.  About  three  months 
afterwards  symptoms  of  his  present  illness  developed.  Shortly  afterwards 
his   wife  and  daughter  contracted  the  disease. 

"The  house  in  which  this  family  live  is  in  an  extremely  insanitary  condi- 
tirn.  Sewage  is  disposed  of  in  a  privy  which  contaminates  the  surrounding 
soil.  The  avenues  of  infection  are,  therefore,  open.  An  examination  of  these 
patients  was  made  and  revealed  tenderness  in  the  right  iliac  region  besides 
the  signs  and  symptoms  before  mentioned.  Bloodsmears  were  taken  from 
these  patients  and  examination  of  these  revealed  a  considerable  degree  of  ane- 
mia and  an  increase  in  the  percentage  of  eosinophils.  Specimens  of  stool  were 
also  taken  and  active  parasites  (Xecator  Americanus)  and  ova  were  found. 
The  evidence  is,  therefore,  complete  that  these  patients  are  suffering  from 
ankylostomiasis. 

"The  local  authorities  were  advised  of  the  presence  of  this  disease  and 
recommendations  were  made  with  a  view  to  determining  the  presence  of  other 
cases,  of  controlling  all  known  cases,  and  to  place  privies  and  cesspools  in 
such  condition  that  the  infection  could  not  be  transmitted  as  at  present.  The 
patients  were  also  instructed  in  the  methods  necessary  to  prevent  them  dis- 
seminating the  disease.  The  physician  was  advised  as  to  the  proper  treatment 
of  such  cases  and  he  planned  to  begin  thymol  administration  in  accord  with 
Stiles'  method  at  once. 

"These  cases  are  of  great  interest  as  the  first  to  be  reported  to  the  State 
Board    of    Health    in    Ohio." 

ANTHRAX    INFECTION. 

During  the  year  191 3  there  were  3  cases  of  death  reported  to  the 
Vital  Statistics  Department  of  the  state  in  which  anthrax  w^as  men- 
tioned as  a  comphcation.  Two  further  cases  (not  fatal)  were  called  to 
our  attention  during-  1914.  A  little  investigation  of  these  instances 
brought  us  to  the  conclusion  that  none  w-ere  authentic,  because  two  of 
them  were  associated  with  diabetes,  and  another  with  kidney  disease. 
The  subsequent  histories  of  the  tw-o  remaining,  wdiich  were  associated 
with  the  cutting  of  meat,  and  in  which  peculiar  ulcers  developed  upon 
the  thuml^s,  disproved  their  character  as  anthrax.  Furthermore,  we 
are  informed  by  the  authorities  in  charge  of  the  Department  of  Animal 
Husbandry,  at  the  Ohio  State  University,  that  no  cases  of  anthrax  have 
l)een  reported  among  animals  in  the  State  in  recent  years.  The  expe- 
rience of  wool-sorters  is  gi\en  under  that  head. 

7      O.    D. 


98 


TETANUS   OR   LOCK-JAW. 

The  occurrence  of  tetanus  or  lock-jaw  is  referred  to  under 
"Junk."  There  are  a  large  number  of  industries  and  processes,  also, 
having  to  do  with  the  liability  of  getting  dirt,  horse  manure,  hairs  from 
hides,  etc.,  into  punctured  wounds  or  lacerations,  in  which  workers  are 
more  liable  to  the  germs  of  lock-jaw  than  ordinarily. 

FURUNCULOSIS   OR   PUS   INFECTION   FROM   OIL. 

The  following  is  taken  from  an  investigator's  report  upon  the 
National  Acme  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  under 
date  of  September  26,  1913  : 

"Two  years  ago  a  rather  extensive  outbreak  of  furunculosis  occurred 
among  employes.  One  thousand  gallons  of  lard  oil  is  used  per  month  in  the 
various  cutting  processes,  and  50%  of  the  employes  have  their  hands  and  fore- 
arms constantly  smeared  with  oil  while  v.-orking.  The  cause  of  the  outbreak 
of  furunculosis  was  traced  to  the  oil,  and  a  bacteriological  examination  mnde 
at  that  time  showed  the  oil  to  be  contaminated  by  a  pur-forming  organism. 
'Oil  sterilization  department  was  then  installed  and  careful  inspection  of  at 
least  400  men  today  failed  to  show  any  evidence  of  furunculosis.  Process  is 
as  follows :  Oil  is  brought  from  all  departments  in  buckets  to  several  large 
centrifuges  on  the  upper  floor.  Here  it  is  centrifuged,  the  solid  material  be- 
ing separated  from  oil  itself.  This  solid  material  represents  cuttings,  etc. 
The  oil  flows  by  gravity  from  these  separators  to  a  collecting  tank  in  base- 
ment. It  then  passes  through  a  series  of  upright  cylinders  called  'settling- 
tanks'  and  in  this  way  an  additional  amount  of  sediment  is  allowed  to  settle 
to  the  bottom  of  tanks  where  it  is  drawn  off  as  waste.  From  the  last  settling 
tank  in  series  the  oil  passes  to  sterilizing  tanks  which  are  connected  in  mul- 
tiple and  which  contain  steam  coils.  From  the  last  sterilizing  tank  the  oil 
passes  into  storage  and  is  undoubtedly  free  from  germs.  It  is  used  again  and 
again,   fresh  oil  being  added  to  make  up   for  losses." 

INDUSTRIAL   APPENDICITIS. 

While  appendicitis  is  not  a  communicable  disease  it  is  so  favored 
as  to  be  communal  in  certain  industries.  Our  attention  was  called  to 
its  frequency  in  many  of  the  lead  industries  investigated,  where  the 
associated  constipation  and  spasms  of  the  intestines  undoubtedly 
brought  the  attack  on. 

Appendicitis  associated  with  constant  reduplication  of  the  self- 
same movements  with  the  right  foot  and  leg  is  illustrated  by  the  series 
of  cases  mentioned  under  Factory  Processes, 


y)9 


INDUSTRIAL   TYPHOID   FEVER. 
Report  of  an  Epidemic  at   Springfield,  Ohio,  in  1911. 

"Twelve  cases  of  tj'phoid  fever  attributed  to  untreated  creek  water  were 
in  the  employ  of  the  International  Harvester  Machinery  Company.  This 
company  has  two  principal  sources  of  water  supply,  one  the  city  water,  and 
the  other  untreat-ed  creek  water.  These  two  supplies  are  separated  only  by 
a  valve  in  the  main.  The  creek  water  is  used  only  in  cases  of  emergency, 
when  the  city  supply  fails  as  it  has  frequently  done  in  the  past.  It  is  notorious 
that  a  double  water  supply  such  as  is  used  by  this  company  is  a  danger  to 
those  consuming  it,  if  one  of  the  sources  is  not  free  from  contamination.  A 
valve  will  leak,  depending  upon  the  relative  .pressures  of  the  water  on  either 
side  of  it;  and  in  this  case  the  untreated  creek  water  was  always  at  a  higher 
pressure  than  the  city  supply.  The  valve  will  also  be  opened  occasionally  in 
cases  of  emergency  and  the  employes  will  not  consider  this  but  will  continue 
using  the  water  and  so  ingest  bacilli  received  in  the  water  from  the  discharg- 
ing sewer.  The  use  of  such  an  arrangement  has  proven  a  fruitful  source  of 
infection   in  other  places   in  the  past. 

"Another  clue  which  rather  pointed  to  the  fact  that  the  plant  w-as  respon- 
sible for  the  infection  of  the  twelve  cases  ascribed  to  it,  is  the  fact  that  the 
disease,  among  the  employes  occurred  in  the  form  of  an  epidemic,  in  October 
and  the  early  part  of  November,  pointing  to  a  temporary  infection  of  some 
vehicle  used  in  common  by  the  workmen.  No  oth?r  cause  save  the  water  Avas 
discovered  in  any  case,  and  the  evidence  is  very  strong  in  favor  of  this  mode 
of  transmission." 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMUNAL  TYPHOID  FEVER. 

"Report   of  an   Outbreak  of  Typhoid  Fever 'in   the  Quarry  Districts  at 
South   Amherst,   Ohio. 

"On  April  14,  1914,  in  compliance  witli  the  request  of  a  physician,  the 
epidemiologist  visited  South  Amherst  in  Amherst  Township,  Lorain  County, 
to   investigate  an   outbreak  of   typhoid   fever. 

"His  report   follows : 

"South  Amherst  is  a  small  non-incorporated  community  built  up  around 
the  quarries  in  Amherst  Township.  The  population  is  probably  about  five 
hundred.  .\  case  of  typhoid  fever  which  was  rather  atypical  developed  in 
January.  During  the  convalscence  of  this  patient  four  other  members  of  the 
family  contracted  the  disease.  From  this  family  it  Spread  to  one  of  the 
neighbors  and  until  up  to  the  present  time  there  have  been  twenty-two  cases 
and  two  deaths  among  five  families.  In  the  first  case  those  in  attendance  upon 
the  child  who  had  typhoid  fever  threw  the  discharges  untreated  upon  the 
ground  leading  to  the  well.  The  wells  in  the  village  are,  as  a  rule,  quite 
accessible  to  the  surface  pollution  of  all  kinds  and  the  privies  are  so  con- 
structed that  the  soil  surrounding  them  is  contaminated  for  long  distances. 
The  limestone  formation  allows  pollution  to  travel  for  long  distances  along 
the  crevices   without   any  oxidation   or  other  purification. 

"There  are  five  cases  of  typlioid  fever  at  the  present  time  in  one  family. 
The   cases   were   e.xamined   and    found   typical   of   moderately   severe   attacks   of 


lOO 

typhoid  fever.  One  of  the  patients  was  in  a  hospital  at  Lorain  and  had  had 
hemorrhages. 

"The  employes  of  the  quarries  are,  as  a  rule,  foreigners  who  do  not 
understand  the  ordinary  principles  of  cleanliness  and  sanitation.  It  is  extremely 
difficult  to  instruct  these  people  in  the  proper  care  of  the  sick  so  that  disease 
will  not  be  spread  by  personal  contact.  It  would  be  an  extremely  difficult 
matter  also,  to  place  all  wells  and  other  sources  of  water  supply  in  a  sanitary 
condition  and  it  would  be  even  more  difficult  to  enforce  the  construction  of 
sanitary  privies  in  all  cases.  It  seemed  advisable  in  the  present  situation  to 
adopt  a  different  procedure  and  to  attempt  to  immunize  as  many  persons  in 
South  Amherst  as  possible  as  the  preliminary  step.  Toward  this  end,  com- 
munications were  directe.d  to  the  officials  of  the  two  quarry  companies  in 
South  Amherst  requesting  their  co-operation  in  vaccinating  their  employes 
with  anti-typhoid  vaccine.  It  is  recommended  that  this  vaccine  Ibe  supplied 
without  charge  by  the  State  Board  of  Health  and  that  the  physicians  employed 
by  the  two  quarry  companies  administer  the  vaccine  without  charge  to  the  men. 

"When  this  preliminary  step  is  taken,  other  precautions,  such  as  placing 
the  privies  in  a  sanitary  condition  and  rendering  the  wells  safe  from  pollution, 
may  be  completed." 

LNDUSTRIES  HAVING   MISCELLANEOUS   HAZARDS    NOT   IN- 
CLUDED  UNDER    PREVIOUS    HEADINGS.     . 

COAL  MINING. 

The  U.  S.  Census  (1910)  gives  the  following  figures  for  the  coal 
mining  industry  in  the  State  of  Ohio : 

No.   of   coal  miners   reporting   to   state 551 

No.  of  superintendents,  salesmen-,   clerks 980 

No.    of    operators 44,056 

The  survey  did  not  cover  this  industry  for  several  reasons.  The 
occupational  diseases  of  coal-miners  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  require 
an  intensive  study  of  each  of  them  to  draw  any  definite  conclusions. 
It  was  considered  best,  therefore,  to  devote  the  time  and  funds  at  hand 
first  to  the  manufacturing  industries.  When  the  time  was  opportune 
for  the  coal  mining  survey,  the  general  strike  closed  all  the  mines  for  a 
long  period.  The  influence  of  this  upon  occupational  afflictions  was 
and  is  such  as  not  to  warrant  a  survey  until  work  has  been  continu- 
ously resumed  for  some  months  at  least. 

The  principal  occupational  afiflictions  to  which  miners,  in  the  types 
of  mines  which  are  ^yorked  in  Ohio,  are  most  liable  are :  respiratory 
diseases  (pneumonia,  anthracosis,  pulmonary  cirrhosis,  emphysema, 
phthisis,  pleurisy,  and  middle  ear  disease);  hook  worm  disease; 
typhoid  fever;  trachoma  or  granulated  eyelids;  nystagmus  or  dancing 
pupils ;  "beat  hand" ;  "miner's  elbow" ;  while  the  efifects  of  sulphur 
fumes  upon  the  lungs,  skin  and  eyes  should  be  inquired  into. 


101 

The  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  years  1910,  1911  and 
19 1 2  give  a  total  of  1,484  deaths  among  miners.  Tuberculosis  is  the 
only  disease  which  is  specifica;ily  applied  to  these  deaths.  There  were 
114  deaths  from  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  7.68%  of  the  total  deaths. 
This  compares  very  favorably  for  the  rates  among  all  occupations 
combined  (13.3%)  and  also  for  Agriculturists  (7.13%).  This  is  in 
harmony  with  similar  statistics  for  coal-miners  the  world  over,  i.  e., 
that  they  have  a  low  death  rate  from  consumption  itself,  although 
respiratory  diseases  of  other  nature  are  excessive.  In  this  connection 
it  is  well  to  point  out  that  accidents  and  injuries  claim  38.8%  of 
Miners  and  Ouarrymen  in  the  registration  area  of  the  United  States, 
and,  as  Dr.  Wm.  Ogle  of  England  says,  "A  man  who  is  killed  by  an 
accident  cannot  also  die  from  phthisis  or  other  disease." 

Since  coal  mining  is  a  long  period  occupation  (that  is,  it  is  a  trade 
which  persons  remain  at  presumably  between  the  years  of  15  and  60 
or  the  entire  work  life)  it  is  significant  to  point  out  that  the  average 
age  at  death  of  464  miners  in  Ohio,  in  the  year  1911,  was  49.3  years,  or 
some  12  or  13  years  less  than  the  expected  length  of  life. 

BARBERING. 

According  to  the  Ohio  \'ital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  years  1910, 
191 1  and  1912  there  were  454  deaths  among  barbers;  of  these  105,  or 
23.12%,  were  due  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  This  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  rate  for  all  occupations  combined  (13.3%)  and,  par- 
ticularly. Agriculturists  (7.13%). 

This  trade  was  not  included  in  the  field  work  of  the  survey,  but 
the  most  acceptable  explanation  for  these  rates  is  the  indoor  ( often 
basement)  confinement  with  long  hours,  breathing  the  breaths  of 
patrons  whom  they  lean  over,  and  the  breathing  of  fine  hairs.  Bar- 
l)ers  also  have  skin  troubles  from  the  solutions  which  they  use,  and 
flat  foot  from  prolonged  standing  (still). 

CAISSON   WORK. 

Caisson  work  was  carried  on  in  a  small  way  in  the  city  of  Cleve- 
land during  the  course  of  the  survey,  in  connection  with  the  building 
of  the  city  water  tunnel  where  a  total  of  45  men  were  employed,  and 
in  connection  with  the  city  sewer  where  a  total  of  8  men  were  em-^ 
ployed.  The  workers  were  divided  into  miners  who  were  skilled  men, 
muckers  who  removed  the  earth  which  had  been  dug  out,  and  masons 
who  bricked  up  after  them,  usually  at  night  time.  In  both  places  the 
work  was  done  under  a  pressure  of  from  15  to  20  pounds  only,  so 
that  the  hazard  was  not.  great.     The  men  were  required  to  come  to  the 


I02 

surface  to  use  the  toilets.  When  the  pressure  was  brought  to  normal 
there  was  considerable  condensation  of  moisture  so  that  it  became 
very  chilly,  especially  for  workers  who  had  been  perspiring.  We  quote 
below  from  the  report  of  the  Cleveland  investigator : 

"The    construction    v.-ork    (of    the   water    works    tunnel)'    is    supervised   by 

Mr. who^has  been  engaged  in  the  work  all  his   life,   and  he  said 

that  it  was  his  ambition  to  construct  this  tunnel  without  the  loss  of  a  single 
life.  At  the  entrance  of  the  tunnel  thej^  had  a  compressed  air  chamber,  so 
that  if  a  man  feels  the  effect  of  his  work  under  compressed  air,  he  is  brought 
in  this  chamber  which  is  a  tube  7  ft.  in  diameter  and  10  ft.  long,  containing  a 
cot.  It  is  sealed  at  one  end  and  has  a  door  at  the  other.  Here  they  can  put 
a  man  under  18  pounds  pressure.  I  had  them  put  me  in  it  and  increase  the 
pressure  to  this  point,  and  felt  some  pain  and  roaring  in  my  ears,  but  other- 
wise experienced  no  ill  effects.  It  seems  that  if  the  pressure  is  increased  or 
decreased  gradually  there  is  practically  no  ill  effects  and  the  amount  of  pres- 
sure the  men  w-ork  under  depends  upon  the  character  of  the  soil  they  are 
excavating,  a  soft  ground  needing  more  than  a  heavy  clay  or  shale.  To  get 
to  the  site  of  the  works  one  is  carried  through  an  old  tunnel  which  is  7  ft. 
in  diameter,  on  a  small  tramwa}^  for*  a  couple  of  miles  where  they  are  building 
the  10  ft.  tunnel.  This  tunnel  is  at  present  about  100  ft.  long.  To  get  into 
this  part  you  are  brought  in  a  small  chamber  where  the  air  is  brought  up  to 
15  pounds,  and  upon  the  man  who  operates  depends  largely  the  effects  of  the 
compressed  air.  If  he  is  in  a  hurry  as  is  very  often  the  case,  he  will  let  you 
in  or  out  accordingly  before  you  are  adjusted  to  the  change. 

'T  saw  one  man  out  there  who,  10  years  ago,  was  working  under  37 
pounds  and  who  was  released  in  1^  minutes,  and  he  is  partially  paralyzed  and 
uses  two  canes  to  get  about.  At  the  head  of  this  tunnel  is  a  crib  (No.  2) 
and  the  men  come  up  here  to  the  toilet,  which  consists  of  some  flat  rocks 
abutting  over  the  lake.  The  tunnel  is  50  feet  under  the  bed  of  the  lake.  All 
the  men  working  there,  with  few  exceptions,  are  experienced  and  have  worked 

in  several  other  places  with  ^Ir.  .     I  questioned  a  number  of  them 

and  several  had  had  pains  in  their  legs  recently  when  changed  too  rapidly. 
A  new  man  had  had  a  slight  attack  a  few  days  before.  The  tunnel  is  damp 
and  chilly  and  I  took  a  bad  cold  from  m}^  trip. 

"I  found  that  by  chewing  gum  and  swallowing,  it  was  easier  to  become 
accustomed  to  the  increase  in  pressure  thus  by  inflating  the  ears." 


I03 


RECAPITULATION  OF  INDUSTRIES   INVESTIGATED. 


Name  of  Industry. 


6 


;? 


fe 


O   1J 


•  Ph 


O  nJ  <L> 


Agricultural    Implements    . . . 

Automobiles    &    Parts 

Babbit  Metal  &  Solder...... 

Bicycles,    Sewing    Machines. 

Boxes,  Fancy  &  Paper 

Brass  &  Bronze  Products... 
Carriages,    Wagons    &   Ma- 

Cars  Made  By  R.  R........ 

Cars  Not  Made  By  R.  R... 
Cash   Registers   &  Calculat- 
ing Machines    

Chemicals     

Coffins,    Burial   Cases,    etc.  . 
Copper,    Tin  &   Sheet-Iron.. 

'Cutlery  &  Tools 

Dry  Cleaning   &   Dyeing.... 

Electrical   Apparatus    

Electroplating   I 

Enameling    and    Japanning.. 
Engraving  &   Die-Sinking. ..  | 

Explosives    | 

Fertilizers    I 

Files  I 

Flavoring  Extracts    I 

Foundry    &    Machine    Shop  | 

Products   I 

Fur  Goods  

Furniture  &  Refrigerators...] 
Gas,  Illuminating  &  Heating,! 

Galvanizing    I 

Glass,  Cutting,  Staining,  etc. I 

Hats I 

Instruments — Professional    ..I 
Iron  &  Steel  Doors  &  Shut-  | 

ters  I 

Jewelry  I 

Junk    

Lead — Bar,   Pipe  &  Sheet...! 
Leather — Tanned,    Cured   &  | 

Finished  | 

Lime   I 

Matches    I 

Mirrors   ! 

Musical  Instruments I 

Oilcloth  &  Linoleum I 

Oil — Linseed    &    Petroleum. .  | 
Paint  &  Varnish 


12 
34 

2 

3 

4 
55 

53 

6 


25 

27 
29 
8 
5 
5 
7 

10 
4 


47 

4 

19 


10 
2 
3 
4 
6 

11 
4 


3 
5 
5 

G 
6 
11 
5 
3 
3 
7 
4 
3 
1 

11 
3 

8 


2  1 

2 

2  1 

0 

10  1 

4 

2  1 

1 

2  1 

2 

1  ! 

1 

8 

1 

oo 

4 

3  1 

1 

2 

i 
8  1 

4 

7  1 

n 

3 

3 

5 

3 

5  1 

3 

•".  1 

3 

•'')  1 

3 

40  1 

fi 

4,499 
17,404 


61 
379 


2,685 

110 

351 

230 

4,450 

82 

2,443 

41 

5,534 

6,459 

5 

6,940 

532 

1,100 

1 

745 

177 

840 

467 

3,949 

253 

263 

435 

6,576 

2,368 

110 

102 

13 

95 

10 

755 

239 

839 

10 

106 

16 

2 

13,857 

627 

21 

23 

3,837 

116 

55 

33 



329 

18 

64 

102 

120 

55 

90 

23 

334 

72 

34 

1.120 



556 

1.313 

469 

89 

847 

4 

240 

1.007 

2,041 

338 

4,560 

17,783 

8 

2,795 

581 

4,532 

2,484 
5,534 
6,464 

7,472 

1.101 

922 

1,307 

4,20-2 

698 

8,944 

110 

115 

105 

994 

849 

108 

18 


9 

18 

1 

12 

7 
16 

10 
11 
11 

14 

3 

12 

13 

19 

6 

22 

5 

9 

3 

6 

4 

4 

1 


14,484 

29 

44 

1 

3,953 

12 

1      55 

3 

1      33 

2 

1     347 

9 

1     166 

6 

1     175 

1 

6 

1      90 

0 

1      23 

5 

I     406 

•9 

1  •   34 

1 

1 

1    1 . 120 

3 

1     556 

4 

1    1,7S'2 

7 

1      89 

3 

1     851 

19 

1     240 

4 

1    1.007 

4 

1    2,379 

6 

General  Factory  Processes  not   included. 


•     .     ■  104 

RECAPITULATION  OF  INDUSTRIES  INVESTIGATED  —  Continued. 


Name  of  Industry. 


Patent  Medicines  &  Com- 
pounds   

Photo-engraving    

Porcelain  Enameled  Iron 
Ware    

Pottery,  Terra  Cotta,   etc.. 

Printing  &  Publishing. 

Roofing  Materials   

Rubber  Goods 

Safes  &  Vaults 

Salt * 

Scales  &  Balances 

Shipbuilding  &  Boatbuilding. 

Signs  &  Advertising  Novel- 
ties     

Smelting  &  Refining 

Springs — Steel  Car  &  Car- 
riage   

Stereotyping  &  Electroplating 

Stoves  &  Furnaces 

Tin  Plate  &  Terne  Plate.  .  . . 

Toys  &  Games 

Total    


Dust. 

Brick  &  Tile 

Brooms    

Cement  Makino-   

Cooperage  &  Wooden  Goods  ' 
Cordage,  Twine.  Jute,   etc.. 
Emery     &    Other    Abrasive 

Wheels    

Flour  &  Grist  Mill 

Grindstones    

Marble  &   Stone 

Mattresses  &  Bed  Springs... 

Paper  &  Wood  Pulp 

Wood — Turned  &  Carved... 


Total 


Fatigue.  Monotony,  Etc. 

Boo'^s  &  Shoes 

Clothin?  &  Textiles 

Flags.  Regalia,  etc 

Iron  &•  Steel  Bolts,  etc 

Tobacco    


Total 


General   Factory   Processes  not   included, 


I05 


RECAPITULATION  OF  INDUSTRIES  INVESTIGATED  —  Concluded. 


Name-  of  Industr}'. 


W 
6 


(J 

6 


o 


.P-i 


Ko 


Heat,  Cold,  Etc. 

Bakeries  

Canning  &  Preserving 

Carbonated  Waters    

Confectioneries  

Glass   

Ice    

Iron  &  Steel  Blast  Furnaces. 

Iron  &  Steel  Forging 

Iron  &  Steel  Rolling  Mills.. 

Laundering   

Liquors,    Malt    

Soap  

Wire  &  Wire  Work 

Total     


13 
3 

14 

28 

1-2 

6 

8 

23 

28 

11 

12 

6 


172 


Miscellaneous. 
Caisson  Work 


Total    .., I        2 

Recapitulation.  \ 

Poisons    I     712 

Dusts  75 

Fatigue    79 

Heat,   Cold I     172 

Communicable     Diseases, 
Misc.   (Caisson  Work).. 


Grand  Totals 


1,040 


3 

11 

2 

3 

16 

3 

3 

5 

13 

4 

3 


653 

685 
24 

362 
8,742 

280 
2,100 

875 
28,195 

527 
1,055 
1,578 
1,908 


141 
661 


904 
864 


11 
1^867' 


442 
64 


46,984 


53 


4,954 


53 


135,572 

6,102 

12,225 

46,984 

53 


81t 


200,936 


794 

1,346 

24 

1,266 

9,606 

■  280 

2,100 

886 

28,195 

2,394 

1,055 

2,020 

1,972 


51,938 


53 


13,768 

800 

15,526 

4,954 


53 


149,340 

6,902 

27,751 

51,938 

53 


35,048 


235,984 


1 
3 

2 
2 
9 
3 

2' 
9 

99 


7 
14 


*  General  Factory  Processes  not  included. 
t  Different  cities  and  villages. 


PART  V. 
HEALTH-HAZARDOUS   PROCESSES. 


THE    SCOPE   AND    METHODS    OF    INQUIRY. 


This  section  of  the  report  takes  up  the  description  of  particular 
processes  in  the  industries  and  gives  a  summary  of  the  findings  for 
each.  Under  "Comments"  are  stated  the  principal  corrective  measures 
suggested  to  conserve  the  health  of  the  workers  in  such  processes. 
Most  of  these  measures  are  those  which  our  investigators  discovered 
were  being  used  in  the  better  regulated  plants. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  is  a  very  important  section  of  the  report 
since  it  deals  directly  with  working  conditions.  While  instances  are 
cited  throughout  this  section  of  persons  suffering  from  occupational 
diseases,  the  reader  should  consult  Part  VI.  to  learn  the  total  number 
of  such  diseases  which  have  been  reported  to  the  State  Board  of 
Health  during  the  course  of  the  survey. 

From  a  hygienic  point  of  view  there  were  numerous  establish- 
ments employing  large  numbers  of  wage-earners  in  which  but  two  or 
three  processes  were  considered  health-hazardous,  and  these,  perhaps, 
engaged  but  a  small  number  of  employes.  On  the  other  hand,  many 
small  establishments  had  most  of  their  employes  engaged  in  processes 
"which  were  considered  more  or  less  dangerous  to  health.  Hence,  the . 
size  of,  and  number  of  employes  in  an  establishment  has  no  relation  to 
the  number  of  dangerous  processes  nor  the  relative  number  of  persons 
engaged  in  the  same.  * 

While  a  lack  of  technical  knowledge  upon  the  part  of  the  physi- 
cian-investigator interferred  more  or  less  with  his  ability  to  describe 
processes,  it  did  not  interfere  with  his  ability  to  observe  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  lo  or  12  health-hazards  for  which  he  was  seeking  in 
each  place,  and  to  report  upon  the  same  according  to  the  blank  forms 
and  the  instructions  under  which  he  worked.  '  While  errors  may  have 
crept  into  the  statements  which  follow  they  are  invariably  upon  the 
conservative  side  and  are  usually  errors  of  omission  rather  than  com- 
mission. In  summarizing,  the  rule  has  been  followed  to  give  the 
benefit  of  the  doubt  to  the  figures  representing  the  better  conditions. 
Where  the  number  of  "fair"or  "bad"  conditions  only  is  mentioned,  the 
balance  are  to  be  considered  "good." 

106 


I07 

In  nearly  all  the  processes  here  described  some  reports  were 
received  from  field  workers  too  late  for  classification,  but  any  unusual 
features  from  such  reports  have  been  mentioned  herein.  In  order  to 
have  sufficient  time  to  compile  the  mass  of  information  collected,  it 
was  necessary  to  close  up  reports  upon  given  processes  when  a  suffi- 
cient number  had  been  received.  In  most  instances  it  is  believed  there 
have  been  enough  places  and  processes  described  to  give  a  fair  repre- 
sentation of  general  average  conditions. 

A  great  many  trade  processes,  both  patented  and  secret,  were  dis- 
closed to  the  investigators  in  full  confidence  of  their  proper  usage,  and 
we  have  endeavored  in  all  respects  to  honor  such  confidences  in  the 
descriptions  of  processes  given  here  or  elsewhere.  It  has  been  the  aim 
also  to  make  this  report  one  upon  industrial  hygiene  and  occupational 
diseases,  and  not  one  upon  the  des.cription  of  manufacturing  processes. 
Inquiries  into  manufacturing  processes  have  also  been  made  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  determining  the  amount  of  risk  to  the  health  of  the 
worker.  In  nearly  all  cases,  indeed,  such  information  was  voluntarily 
given  to  our  representatives  even  before  inquiries  were  made. 

In  all  establishments  visited,  which  are  included  in  the  summaries 
herewith,  work  was  going  on  at  the  time  of  the  visit  of  inspection.  In 
addition  to  the  observation  of  working  conditions  the  investigators 
questioned  employes  while  at  work,  and  examined  for  the  more  easily 
demonstrable  "ear-marks"  of  occupational  diseases,  devoting  as  much 
time  to  this  feature  as  seemed  warranted  in  most  places.  The  percent- 
age of  employers  who  objected  to  this,  even  without  explaining  to  them 
that  such  was  the  prerogative  of  the  Board  of  Health,  under  the 
enabling  Act,  was  so  small  that  this  alone,  if  nothing  else,  shows  the 
magnanimous  attitude  of  the  great  body  of  employers  throughout  the 
State.  Investigators  were  carefully  instructed  in  this  respect  not  to 
pass  opinions  upon  working  conditions  to  employes,  nor  to  express  to 
any  employe  who  was  questioned  or  examined  any  opinions  concerning 
his  or  her  state  of  health  as  determined  by  the  physician-investigator. 

The  principle  adopted  throughout  this  report  has  been  to  conceal 
individual  incidents,  places,  establishments,  and  even  cities,  as  much 
as  possible,  and  to  render  a  summary  of  findings  and  opinions  uninflu- 
enced by  local  coloring.  In  nearly  all  places,  names,  addresses,  ages, 
health  histories,  and  work  complaints,  if  any,  of  part  of  the  emplo3^es 
were  taken.  Both  older  workers  and  old  employes,  as  well  as  newer 
ones,  were  so  consulted.  In  some  places  materials  which  workmen 
were  handling  and  the  substances  of  which  they  did  not  know  (perhaps 
even  employers  did  not  know)  were  collected  and  sent  to  our  labora- 
tories for  analysis. 


io8 


For  each  process  the  following  facts  were  ascertained : 

1.  The  location  of  the  process  in  the  building. 

2.  What  that  part  of  the  building  was  constructed  for. 

3.  Whether  such  construction  was  generally  hygienic,  that  is,  amply  spaced, 
properly  enclosed  against  weather  conditions,  well  lighted,  properly  heated, 
ceilings  high  enough,  walls,  floor  and  ceilings  of  a  character  to  be  kept 
easily  clean,  the  conveniency  of  toilets,  and  the  amount  of  available 
space  left  to  the  workers. 

4.  The  division   of  employes  by  sexes. 

5.  The  approximate  number  of  employes  over  40  years  of  age,  between  20 
and  40,  under  20  years,  and  under  16  years.  The  reason  for  the  20-year 
division  is  that  the  adult  does  not  usually  attain  his  or  her  full  stature 
and  development  before  the  20th  year.     In  very  few  shops  were  workers 


Fig.  35.     A  Factory  Rest  Room. 

This   "sick   bay"   is    maintained   by   a   pottery   company   which   employs   a    large 

number  of  girls. 


under  16  years  of  age  employed  in  any  of  the  industries  investigated. 
Here  and  there,  especially  during  the  summer  seasons,  children  were 
found  employed  who  acknowledged  their  ages  as  less  than  14.  Such  in- 
stances, however,  were  very  rare.  Since  there  is  a  law  under  the  admin- 
istration of  the  State  Industrial  Commission  governing  the  hours  of  em- 
ployment for  females,  we  did  not  check  up  this  feature  with  any  regu- 
larity. 


109 


6.  A  brief  description  of  the  process. 

7.  Were  other  processes  in  the  same  quarters,  and,  if  so,  the  number  of 
employes  engaged  in  such.  This  is  very  important,  since  oftentimes  one 
set  of  workers  is  subjected  to  the  hazards  of  processes  other  than  their 
own. 

8.  Were  modern  or  crude  methods  used.  Such  were  judged  by  using  as  a 
criterion  the  better  known  hygienic  methods,  but  "crude"  or  "antiquated" 
methods  is  a  term  which  was  only  applied  to  such  places  as  were  par- 
ticularly endangering  the  health  of  employes  ,when  much  better  methods 
of  accomplishing  the  same  purposes  were   found  to  exist  elsewhere. 

9.  The  presence  or  absence  of  unions  or  workmen's  organizations. 


Fig.  36.    The  Employer's  Interest  in  the  Welfare  of  Employes  May  Well 
Extend  Beyond  the  Work  Place. 

Flying  rings,  and  other  equipment  of  a  public  playground,  which   is   equipped 
and  maintained  by  an  industrial  corporation. 


10.  The  attitude  toward  the  workers.  This  was  determined  by  the  presence 
or  absence  of  welfare  efforts,  workers'  complaints,  and  the  immediate  in- 
terest which  foremen  or  managers  appeared  to  take  in  the  employe.  As 
is  well  known,  the  best  efforts  of  an  employer  towards  his  employes  de- 
pends very  largely  upon  the  personality,  tact  and  attitude  of  the  foreman 
who  is  immediately  over  them. 

11.  The  type  of  workers,  whether  intelligent,  responsible,  and  capable  of  under- 
standing instructions  or  whether  an  ignorant  and  usually  non-Englisli 
speaking   class. 

12.  The  retention  of  workers,  or  the  steadiness  which  they  evinced  in  remain- 
ing at  the  place  of  employment, 


■  / 


no 

13.  The  number  of  work  shifts  in  24  hours,  the  hours  per  shift,  night  work, 
overtime,  noon  time,  and  other  recesses. 

14.  The  approximate  number  of  skilled  and  unskilled  at  the  process. 

15.  The  seasonal  influence  of  the  work,  whether  rush  seasons  and  dull  sea- 
sons characterize  it. 

16.  The  presence  or  absence  of  health  appliances,  that  is,  mechanical  devices 
to  promote  ventilation  and  confine  or  remove  fumes,  dusts,  etc.,  from  the 
vicinit}'  of  the  workers. 

17.  Health  instructions,  regarding  the  use  of  poisons  and  the  avoidance  of 
other  health  hazards  which  might  be  present.  An  attempt  was  made  to 
ascertain  how  much  attention  was  given  to  this  by  employers  and  fore- 
men, and  how  well  they  were  qualified  in  this  field,  which  in  most  in- 
stances requires  a  thoughtful  physician. 

18.  The  presence  or  absence  of  health  placards,  inspiring  aphorisms,  legends. 
etc. 

19.  The  presence  or  absence  of  a  proper  or  safe  place  in  which  to  eat  lunches. 

20.  The  presence  or  absence  of  change  rooms  and  lockers  for  clothing. 

21.  Sanitary  provisions,  including  washing  facilities,  drinking  facilities,  and 
whether  time  was  allowed  for  personal  hygiene  along  these  lines,  par- 
ticularly in  poisonous,   heat   exposing,   or   dirty  processes. 

Below  is  a  fac-simile  of  the  card  used  by  our  field  investigators  to 
report  working  conditions  and  health-hazards  to  the  office.  A  simple 
code  enabled  each  feature  mentioned  to  be  designated  "good,"  "fair," 
"bad,"  or  "absent,"  while  the  blank  spaces  permitted  of  brief  remarks. 


II I 


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113 

In  the  summaries  which  follow  it  will  be  found  that  the  same 
terms  and  expressions  have  been  used  again  and  again.  If  value  of 
repetition  means  anything,  it  is  hoped  that  these  repetitions  will  effect 
their  purpose,  and,  where  indicated,  bring  about  the  remedial  measures 
necessary. 

Some  facts  stand  out :  Owners  and  managers  of  plants  hygi- 
enically  well-regulated  and  who  have  been  giving  attention  to  the  same 
for  years,  perhaps,  often  refuse  to  believe  that  conditions  dangerous 
to  the  health  exist  in  other  plants  engaged  in  the  same  lines  as  their 
own.  Again,  because  owners  and  managers  are  not  hygienists  nor 
physicians,  they  many  times  fail  to  correlate  causes  and  effects  and  to 
have  knowledge  of  or  to  see  occupational  complaints  and  diseases 
which  are  right  before  them.  A  solution  of  this  situation,  we  repeat 
again,  is  that  the  employer  have  his  own  physician  at  hand,  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  risks  involved,  shall  make  periodic  inquiries  and  render 
suggestions.  There  is  no  question,  however,  but  that  a  considerable 
amount  of  intelligent  thought  has  been  directed  to  these  matters  in 
the  majority  of  the  places  investigated. 

The  processes  summarized  in  the  following  pages  have  been 
divided  into  two  groups  :  General  Processes  and  Special  Processes. 
The  former  are  those  which  are  apt  to  be  found  in  any  industry  or  es- 
tablishments ;  the  latter,  those  which  are  peculiar  to  certain  industries. 


GENERAL  PROCESSES 


115 


GENERAL  PROCESSES. 
FACTORY  PROCESSES    (GENERAL). 

A  large  percentage  of  employes  in  shops  and  factories  are  employed  in 
numerous  operations,  which,  while  more  or  less  peculiar  to  each  industry,  are 
very  similar  in  nature.  Such  operations  do  not  require  special  skill  or  training, 
as  a  rule,  although  experience  develops  great  dexterity  and  speed  in  many  in- 
stances. The  workers  are  capable  of  being  interchanged  between  various 
operations.  Especially  do  they  change  from  one  establishment  to  another,  and 
usually  take  up  new  operations  with  each  change.  Such  workers  constitute  a 
class  slightl}^  in  advance  of  common  laborers,  and  we  have  classed  them  as 
"general  factory  help".  In  a  rough  way  they  may  be  grouped  into  certain 
processes  such  as  "routine  machine  operations",  "assembling",  "inspecting", 
"finishing",    "packing",    and   the    like. 

General  factory  processes  were  investigated  in  100  plants,  representing 
.35  different  industries,  located  in  18  cities,  employing  a  total  of  7,946  wage- 
earners,  of  whom  5,045  were  males  and  2,901  were  females. 

According  to  the  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  Ohio  for  the.  years  1910, 
1911  and  1912,  there  were  14,379  deaths  among  males  engaged  in  Mechanical 
and  Manufacturing  Pursuits,  of  which  number  1,977  died  of  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis, or  13.7%.  This  is  about  the  same  as  the  rate  for  all  occupations  com- 
bined (13.3%).  The  figures  for  females  were  too  few  to  be  utilized,  but  in- 
dicated, so  far  as  they  went,  a  much  higher  tuberculosis  rate  (45.8%).  Ac- 
cording to  the  U.  S.  Mortality  Statistics  for  the  Registration  Area,  pulmonary 
tuberculosis  claims  27.4%  of  the  deaths  among  females  engaged  in  Mechanical 
and  Manufacturing  Pursuits,  the  rate-  for  males  being  15.5%. 

So  far  as  could  be  ascertained,  modern  methods  obtained  in  81  establish- 
ments investigated,  fairly  so  in  10  more,  not  so  in  4,  while  the  remaining  5 
were  not  reported  upon  in  this  respect.  Unions,  of  course,  were  rare  among 
this  class  of  workers,  although  in  4  plants  these  workers  were  admitted  into 
various  "locals"  because  they  were  helpers  and  the  like.  A  managerial  in- 
terest in  workers'  welfare  was  well  manifested  in  72  places,  fairly  so  in  20 
more,  not  so  in  4,  and  not  reported  upon  in  4.  An  intelligent  type  of  at  least 
English  speaking  persons  prevailed  in  67  places,  fairly  so  in  19  more,  while 
ignorant  foreigners,  largely  non-English  speaking,  made  up  the  general  factory 
workers  in  13  places  (the  1  remaining  place  was  not  reported  upon).  There 
appeared  to  be  no  objection  to  the  character  of  the  work  performed  on  the 
part  of  the  workers,  and  accordingly  they  remained  steadily  as  far  as  this 
feature  was  influential  in  79  places,  fairly  so  in  9  others;  while  in  9  more  work- 
ing conditions  appeared  to  be  the  chief  cause  of  unsteadiness  of  employment 
(8  places  were  not  reported  upon).  In  18  places  every  reasonable  health  ap- 
pliance was  found  to  be  present,  including  appliances  for  changing  the  air  in 
the  workrom  where  needed,  as  well  as  locally  ventilating,  or  otherwise  render- 
ing hygienic,  the  processes  in  which  the  workers  were  engaged.  Such  appliances 
were  fairly  efficient  in  6  more  establishments,  but  in  the  remaining  76,  in  most 
of  which  there  was  need  of  the  same,  they  were  either  absent  or  very  inade- 
quate.    Definite  and  oganized  instructions  along  health  lines,  especially  in  rela- 

117 


ii8 

tion  to  the  work  being  performed,  were  given  in  8  of  the  plants  investigated, 
and  to  some  extent  in  2  others.  Such  were  more  or  less  needed  in  the  re- 
maining 90.  In  8  establishments  this  class  of  workers  was  included  in  sick 
benefit  and  similar  associations.  Regarding  the  question  of  skill,  in  15  proc- 
esses in  as  many  places,  considerable  skill  was  required,  while  those  in  25  addi- 
tional places  were  somewhat  skilled.  In  the  remaining  60,  such  factory  proc- 
esses could  be  carried  on  with  very  little  interruption  to  business  or  production 
with  a  constantly  changing  work  force.  Factory  workers  were  employed  in 
hygienically  well  constructed  buildings  and  workrooms  in  51  places,  fairly  so 
in  16  more,  not  so  in  29,  while  this  feature  was  not  reported  upon  -in  the  re- 
maining 4.  There  was  a  great  tendency  to  carry  on  various  factory  processes 
in  the  same  quarters  or  room,  and  oftentimes  along  with  processes  requiring 
skilled  work,  so  that  oftentimes  workers  were  subjected  to  the  hazards  of 
neighboring  processes,  when,  perhaps,  those  in  which  they  themselves  were 
engaged  were  without   hazard   to  health. 

Age-group   estimations   for  this   class  of  workers   summed  up   as   follows  : 


Age  groups. 
Over  50  years. .  . 
From  45  to  50. . 
From  40  to  45 . . 
From  20  to  40.. 
Under   20   years. 


No.  of 
Wage-earners. 

113 
171 
550 
6,900 
212 


Females  tended  very  largely  to  younger  years. 

A  synopsis   of   the   exposures   to  the  various   health-hazards,   arranged   in 
relation  to  the  number  of  workplaces,  shows  as  follows : 


Amount  of  Exposure 
of  Workplaces.) 

/ 

(No. 

0 

Health  Hazard. 

c 
o 

.h          1      X)' 

^^    (U 

H 

Dust    

63 
49 
89 
76 
44 
77 
93 
(See 

20 
30 
10 
14 
38 
19 
5 

16 

21 

1 

10 

18 

4 

2 

41 

19 

19 

5 

1 

2 

100 

Dirt   • 

100 

Dampness 

100 

Darkness    

100 

Air  

100 

Heat   

100 

Cold 

100 

Fatigue 

Inactivity 

(See  Relnw^ 

Infections     

15 

m 

25 
53 

42 
15 
56 
37 

100 

Poisons 

100 

Stimulantism     

100 

Several  unhealthy  appearing  persons 

100 

Fatigue   was   a   hazard   as    follows:    hurrying   piece-work,   41;   monotonous 
application   and    reduplication    of   movements,   37;    constant   standing    (still),   25 


119 

(sometimes  holes  worn  in  the  floor  ahiiost  the  shape  of  feet);  ej'e-strain,  16; 
prolonged  faulty  postures,  15;  jarring  processes,  13;  loud  noises,  12;  speeding 
up,  11;  laborious  work,  9;  long  hours,  8;  chairs  without  back  rests,  8;  constant 
and  prolonged  strain,  6;  and  body  pressure  (pressing  objects  against  body,  or 
the  body  against  objects,  more  or  less  constantly),  5.  In  13  establishments  there 
were  rest  rooms  for  female  help,  in  14  establishments  workers  were  changed 
between  processes,  thus  avoiding  exhaustion,  while  in  a  smaller  number  of  in- 
stances, various  recreation  schemes  combined  with  outdoor  and  gymnasium 
privileges  were  devised.  To  overcome  the  effects  of  physical  inactivity,  pro- 
visions for  exercise  or  recreation  were  arranged  for  in  4  establishments.  Much 
profitable  thought  could  have  been  given  to  this  in  a  good  percentage  of  other 
places.     In  these  100  establishments  the  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  4 


Fig.  37.     Mocel  Factory  Conditions. 

Note   chairs   with   backs   and    foot   rests    for   sedentary   workers. 

well-lighted  room. 


Spacious   and 


places,  8  to  9  hours  in  37  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  49  places,  10  to  11  hours  in  2 
places,  over  11  hours  in  1  place,  and  not  ascertained  in  the  remaining  7,  in  some 
of  which  there  were  no  definite  hours  observed.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in 
32  places,  f  hour  in  9  places,  J  hour  in  58  places,  and  not  reported  upon  in  1. 
Overtime  was  of  considerable  frequency  in  3  places,  while  a  night  shift  was 
worked  in  1. 

The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  (infections)  was 
dete'rmined  as  negligible  in  15  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  42,  bad  in  41,  the  remain- 
ing 2  not  being  reported  upon.  The  hazards  were  all  of  those  discussed  in 
previous  Parts  (II.  and  III.),  but  especially  would  we  call  attention  here  to 
promiscuous  spitting  upon  floors  in  workplaces  by  persons  who  are  employed 
without  physical  examination  and  who  work  without  medical  supervision.     This 


120 

single  factor  is  overwhelmingly  important  in  the  the  spread  of  some  20  in- 
fectious and  contagious  diseases,  which  involve  the  nose,  throat  and  lungs,  and 
the  germs  of  which  are  transferred  from  person  to  person  by  means  of  the 
excrement  from  these  parts.  The  universal  use  of  cuspidors  where  persons  are 
employed  for  hours  at  a  time  in  which  to  deposit  such  excrements  seems  the 
first  logical  step  in  the  solution  of  this  question.  The  association  of  appendi- 
citis with  Avork  requiring  the  use  of  the  right  foot  or  leg,  as  among  machine 
operators  and  press  workers,  was  w^ell  illustrated  by  a  series  of  four  cases 
brought  to  our  attention  among  girls  in  a  shoe  factory  where  they  were  em- 
ployed at  box-making  on  machines.  They  made  from  8,000  to  12,000  move- 
ments with  the  right  foot  daily.  The  work  was  also  very  jarring  and  wearing 
upon  them.  One  had  acute  appendicitis,  one  chronic  appendicitis  (possibly 
complicated  with  ovaritis),  while  the  other  two  had  continually  recurring  at- 
tacks of  right  iliac  pain  with  indigestion. 

The  poison  hazards  to  which  general  factory  workers  were  exposed  in 
the  35  places  shown  in  the  table  were  lead  and  lead  compounds,  wood  alcohol, 
turpentine,  benzine  (petrol,  naphtha,  gasoline),  corrosive  salts,  amyl  acetate, 
shellacs,    lacquers,  acids,  alkalis,  dye  stuffs,  stains  and  colors. 

The  industrial  inducement  to  sti)nulantism  (alcoholism,  coffeeism,  teaism 
and  drugism)  was  determined  as  negligible  in  25  instances,  a  fair  hazard  in 
56,  and  bad  in  19.  It  was  due  in  many  instances  to  the  inadequacy  of  proper 
drinking  water  and  thirst-assuaging  facilities,  as  well  as  to  the  depressing 
influences  of  the  various  hazards  given  in  the  table  above. 

Complaints,  covering  all  manner  of  health-hazards,  insanitary  working 
conditions,  and  irritating  inconveniences,  which  workers  made  were  too  vari- 
ous and  numerous,  and  sometimes  trivial  to  warrant  discussing  here,  but  it 
suffices  to  say  that  our  investigators,  who  occasionally  stopped  to  talk  with 
these  workers  in  the  course  of  their  factory  inspections,  reported  among  them 
11  occupationally  diseased  persons,  divided  as  follows :  industrial  tubercu- 
losis, 6;  lead  poisoning,  3;  conjunctivitis,  1;  and  dermatitis,  1;  while  there 
were  a  great  many  hearsay  instances,  based  upon  good  evidence,  —  the 
hazards  were  certainly  present,  — •  which  our  investigators  had  not  the  time  to 
follow  up.  Hospitals,  dispensaries,  charitable  institutions,  societies  and  private 
physicians  get  tfae  information  upon  these,  but  practically  none  of  them  keep 
records  and  files  classing  "occupational  complaints,"  hence  this  source  of  in- 
formation was  not  available  to  this  surve}^. 

Comments. — -This  class  of  workers  represents  such  a  large  group  that 
it  should  be  given  more  thought,  probably,  than  any  of  the  special  processes, 
to  which  attention  is  naturally  more  definitely  directed.  However,  these 
workers  are  prone  to  get  the  least  attention  because  of  the  ever-changing 
personnel,  and  lack  of  skill,  and,  unlike  machinery,  each  unit  which  proves 
defective  can  be  replaced  without  cost  to  the  manufacturer  as  long  as  the 
supply  of  labor  remains  good.  It  is  pre-eminently  from  this  class  of  workers 
that  the  material  for  crowding  hospitals,  dispensaries  and  charitable  institu- 
tions is  collected ;  it  is  also  from  this  class  of  workers  that  the  vast  majority 
of  unemployable  persons  develop.  Such  persons  are  rendered  unemployable 
usually  fairly  early  in  work  life,  —  one  reason  for  the  comparatively  small 
number  who  are  found  engaged  in  industry  after  40  years  of  age.  This 
unemployability  is  the  result,  chiefly,  of  such  factors  as  chronic  alcoholism, 
maiming  and  crippling,   chronic  diseases   of   degenerative  character,  and   social 


121 

disgust  or  loss  of  ambition.  In  all  of  these,  industrial  relations  unquestionably 
have  been  the  chief  causes.  Probably  the  greatest  good  that  can  be  done  for 
this  class  of  workers  to  keep  them  "on  the  job,"  from  a  manufacturer's  point 
of  view,  is  to  institute  brief  but  concrete  instruction  along  health  conserva- 
tion lines  in  conjunction  with  work.  Medical  supervision  should  be  gradually 
adopted.  The  employer  is  further  responsible,  of  course,  for  the  general 
sanitary  and  hygienic  features  of  his  place  of  employment,  as  well  as  his 
methods  of  working  his  employes.  Moral  and  housing  hazards  among  em- 
ployes are  so  closely  associated  with  industrial  relation  that  it  would  appear 
that  the  employer  is,  of  all  persons,  the  most  responsible,  especially  in  that 
he  can  demand  "his  money  value  for  his  expenditure  for  labor,"  which  gives 
him  the  right  to  normal  healthy  workers  and  the  refusal  of  such  as  endanger 
themselves  and  their  fellow  workers  by  disastrous  indulgences  and  social 
delinquencies. 

GAS  PRODUCING. 

A  comparatively  few  plants  in  the  State  of  Ohio  make  their  own  pro- 
ducer or  generator  gas.  This  is  made  from  coal  in  a  combustion  chamber, 
the  fuel  being  burned  to  cinders.  Illuminating  gas  is  made  in  a  few  large 
cities  in  which  coke  is  a  by-product.  Most  of  the  'blast  furnaces  utilize  the 
gases  produced  for  fuel  purposes  —  a  continuous  mechanical  process.  The 
charging  with  coal  and  removal  of  clinkers  was  mechanically  done  in  all 
except  the  smallest  plants.  The  manufacture  of  special  by-products,  outside 
of  coke  and  tar,  was  not  observed  anywhere.  Ammonia  liquor  is  also 
produced. 

Our  investigations  covered  7  plants  making  producer  gas  and  emploj-ing  a 
total  of  80  men.  These  were  seen  in  connection  with  rolling  mills,  glass 
works,  and  lime  kilns.  In  addition,  the  illuminating  gas  plants  in  2  cities 
employing  a  total  of  55  men  were  also  seen.  (In  two  plants  4  men  were 
employed  in  the  process  of  making  water-gas.)  The  employes  were  nearly  all 
immigrants,  foreigners  or  negroes.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  they  worked  prac- 
'tically  out-of-dcors,  —  most  of  them  engaged  as  pokers  on  top  of  the  produc- 
tion furnaces  —  workers  were  very  little  protected  by  health  appliances.  The 
work  required  very  little  skill.  With  the  exception  of  1  man  the  workmen 
seen  were  all  between  20  and  40  years  of  age.  Workers  did  not  remain  long 
in  most  plants,  especially  in  the  summer  season. 

The  chief  hazards  were  to  the  persons  who  endured  exposure  to  dust, 
scot,  smoke,  hot  gas  fumes  and  flames  during  the  time  that  the}'  were  required 
to  open  the  caps  over  the  poke  holes  on  top  of  the  producer  furnaces.  This 
happened  about  every  10  to  15  minutes  and  lasted  2  or  :"!  minutes  each  time. 
At  this  time  a  severe  blast  poured  forth  from  the  opening,  against  which  the 
workman  who  stood  over  the  opening  in  order  to  break  clinkers  up,  had  no 
protection  except  to  lean  back  as  far  as  he  could.  The  blast  extended  from 
2  to  10  feet  high,  and  consisted  of  flames  and  invisible  gas,  or  was  accom- 
panied with  immense  volumes  of  smoke,  soot  and  dust.  Exposure  tn  licat 
was  a  hazard  for  all  workers,  especialh*  to  coke  drawers,  but  the  alternatin\;' 
exposure  to  cold  between  operations  during  the  winter  season  was  a  greater 
hazard.  The  stokers  were  usually  high  up  in  the  air,  with  only  a  roof  for 
protection  against  the  weather.  Cuke  wheelers  were  exposed  to  clouds  of 
steam  from  the  sprinkled  coke.  The  work  itself  was  not  fatiguing  for  healthy 
laborers;   the   12-h()ur   workday,    which   obtained   in   nearlv   all    places,   with    the 


122 

absence  of  a  noon  recess  (a  half-hour  was  allowed  in  two  places),  were 
objectionable  features.  One  place  found  it  expedient  to  work  three  8-hour 
shifts.  Night  shifts,  of  course,  were  the  rule.  In  small  plants,  2  men  divided 
the  24  hours,  working  12  hours  each.  The  risk  of  gas  poisoning  was  a  fair 
hazard  in  all  places.  It  was  influenced  by.  the  condition  of  the  weather  and 
wind,  and  especially  by  the  persistency  with  which  the  pokers  faced  the  blasts. 
Producer  gas  is  over  four  times  as  rich  (34%)  in  carbon  monoxide  gas  as  is 
illuminating  gas  (8%).  There  was  every  opportunity  for  the  effect  of  chronic 
gas  poisoning,  due  to  short-intervalled  inhalations  of  gas  frequently  repeated. 
Many  of  the  workers  were  seen  to  stagger  around  for  two  or  three  minutes 
after  each  exposure.  In  water-gas  manufacture  there  was  some  risk  of 
carbon  monoxide  poisoning  during  sampling,  and  more,  due  to  leaks ;  there 
was  also  slight  risk,  due  to  ammonia  fumes,  and  napthalin  which  was  de- 
posited in  clouds  at  the  time  of  cleaning  tanks.  Several  workers  were  seen 
who  showed  the  effects  of  the  work.  One  case  of  mental  deterioration  and 
another  of  spinal  trouble  and  anemia  were  called  to  our  attention,  both 
following  severe  "gassing"  in  gas  house  workers.  Two  fatalities  occurring 
in  1911  were  also  reported.  CoviplOiints  included  the  breathing  of  gas  and 
smoke,  dizziness,  "swelling  up,"  the  heat  during  hot  weather,  getting  of  foreign 
particles  in  the  eyes,  coughing,  difficulty  in  breathing,  indigestion,  and 
rheumatism.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was,  of  course,  con- 
siderable   in    most    instances. 

Coiiuncnts.  —  One  company  furnished  blue  glasses,  which  protected  the 
eyes  against  foreign  particles  as  well  as  the  heat  and  intense  light.  Through 
the  spread  of  the  "safety  first"  idea,  greater  precautions  are  being  taken  when 
it  is  necessary  to  enter  gas  chambers  and  passageways,  such  as  providing 
oxygen  apparatus,  pulmotors  and  other  first-aid  equipments,  in  addition  to 
gas  helmets  provided  with  compressed  air  blasts,  and  the  careful  watching  of 
workers  while  so  engaged.  In  1  place  a  scheme  was  'being  worked  out  to 
prevent  all  exposure  to  the  gases  and  flames  as  well  as  the  loss  of  the  same 
while  poking,  by  means  of  a  steam  blast  placed  just  inside  of  the  poke  hole, 
which  would  operate  automatically  on  opening  the  cover  to  the  same,  and 
would  also'  help  in  the  moistening  of  the  gas.  These  workers  should  be 
provided  also  with  shower  bath  facilities  and  proper  change-rooms,  while 
medical  supervision  would  prevent  the  employing  of  any  who  had  a  tuberculous 
tendency.  It  is  said  that  even  mechanical  stokers  and  mechanical  poking  of 
the  fuel  in  the  producers  is  not  free  from  exposure  to  escaping  smoke  and 
gases. 

STATIOXARY  FIRIXC  AND   EXGIXEERIXG. 
CBoiLER  Rooms  axd   Power  Production.) 

The  power  plants,  including  the  boiler  rooms,  engine  and  dynamo  quar- 
ters, were  inspected  in  a  large  number  of  establishments.  Only  the  boiler 
rooms  appeared  to  present  health-hazards  worthy  of  notice.  The  workers 
here  were  firemen,  coal  heavers  and  laborers.  Dust,  dirt,  ash  and  coal  heaps 
scattered  a'bout,  and  a  certain  amount  of  contamination  of  the  atmosphere 
with  escaping  gases  and  occasionally  steam,  were  features  in  about  half  of 
the  places.  In  addition,  damp  and  dark  quarters  were  frequently  seen.  In 
many  large  places  automatic  stokers  did  practically  all  the  work,  so  that  work- 
men were  few  and  very  little  exposed,  but  heat  was  a  considerable  factor  in 
nianv    places.     It    was    rendered    worse    bv    the    tendency    of    tlie    workmen    to 


123 

step  out-of-doors  between  stoking  and  shoveling  to  cool  off.  Another  hazard 
is  fatigue,  which  depends  no  so  much  upon  hard  work  as  upon  long  hours, 
especially  for  workers  in  hot  processes.  In  practicalh-  no  places  were  workers 
engaged  for  less  than  10  hours,  while  usually  two  shifts  divided  the  24  hours 
between  them.  One  day's  rest  in  seven  was  least  often  observed  in  this 
process  of  any  investigated.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  coiiuiiunicable 
diseases  was  a  considerable  hazard  in  most  boiler  rooms,  due,  principally,  to 
promiscuous  spitting  into  places  where  the  dust  might  carry  infection  to 
fellow  workmen,  to  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  of  adequate  washing  facilities, 
poor  closets,  and  the  common  use  of  the  same  drinking  cups  and  towels.  In 
some  places,  however,  all  of  these  features  were  guarded  against.  The  liability 
to  industrial  alcoholism  in  this  process  is  directly  in  proportion  to  the  in- 
adequacy of  proper  thirst-assuaging  facilities,  and  wash-up  places,  as  well 
as  too  great  exposure  to  heat,  and  subjection  to  long  hours.  Various  ones 
of  these  factors  were  complaints  in  the  places  investigated. 

Comments.  —  As  with'  all  heat  exposed  workers,  these  men  should  have 
the  advantage  of  a  properly  protected  shower  bath,  change  rooms  in  which 
to  dry  out  clothing,  hours  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  amount  of  exposure, 
blue  glasses  to  protect  the  eyes  from  heat,  light  and  foreign  bodies,  and 
medical  supervision  to  warn  those  who  have  a  tuberculous  tendency  to  keep  out 
of  the  process. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  years  1910,  1911 
and  1912  there  were  649  deaths  arnong  Engineers  and  Firemen  (not  locomo- 
tive) of  which  number  &6,  or  10.17%,  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  This  is 
better  than  the  combined  rate  (13.3%)  for  all  trades  during  the  same  period, 
and  nearly  as  low  as  that  of  Agriculturists  (7.13%).  The  accident,  injury 
and  accidental  poisoning  rate  among  them   for  the  country  at  large  is   12.2%. 

FURNACING. 

In  addition  to  the  processes  concerned  in  the  boiler,  power  and  firing 
rooms,  in  a  great  number  of  industries,  a  certain  number  of  employes  are 
engaged  in  taking  care  of  furnaces,  baking  ovens,  kilns,  and  drying  rooms, 
which  are  located  within  the  interior  of  buildings,  and  oftentimes  in  the  midst 
of  surrounding  processes,  such  as  in  foundry  work,  heating  furnaces  for 
cutlery  and  tools,  enameling  and  japanning'  ovens,  and  the  like.  None  of 
these  furnacing  operations  are  on  the  scale  of  the  large  heating  furnaces, 
annealing  ovens,  etc.,  which  are  found  in  iron  and  steel  mills,  and  which  are 
considered  under  that  heading. 

This  process  of  Furnacing  was  investigated  in  l")  establishments,  cover- 
ing a  wide  range  of  products,  and  employing  a  total  of  157  wageearners,  all 
males.  An  unskilled  class  of  workers  was  usually  employed,  there  were  no 
unions,  and  they  were  apt  to  be  a  changing  set  of  employes.  In  7  places 
health  appliances  consisting  of  means  to  prevent  the  effects  of  excessive  heat 
were  present,  such  as  movable  screens,  asbestos  coverings  to  furnaces,  electric 
.fans,  air  blasts,  and  various  mechanical  contrivances  to  permit  the  workers 
to  keep  at  a  distance  from  the  openings  of  the  furnaces.  In  addition,  some 
places  had  a  large  hood,  connected  with  a  stack,  over  furnaces  areas,  as  well 
as  exhaust  fans  and  air-agitators  within  the  quarters  to  remove  escaping 
fumes,  smoke  or  odors.  Too  often  open  windows,  or  roof  vents  (always 
more   or  less   closed   up   in    the   winter   time)    were    the   only   means    depended 


124 

upon  for  such  ventilation.  There  was  a  tendency  to  employ  j-ouths  and 
younger  men  at  such  work,  while  only  12  of  the  total  of  157  workers  were 
over  40  years  of  age. 

The  work  was  of  a  hazardous  dusty  character  in  7  places,  while  dirt  and 
disorder  characterized  the  vicinity  in  8  places.  In  2  places  the  furnaces  were 
located  in  very  damp  and  steamj-  quarters,  and,  in  4,  light  was  very  poor.  This 
occasionally  was  made  much  worse  by  the  presence  of  smoke  from  the 
furnaces.  In  some  instances,  on  the  contrary,  workers  were  compelled  to  face 
brilliant  lights  and  intense  heat,  both  tending  to  produce  disturbances  of  sight 
(temporary  blindness,  blood  shot  eyes,  corneal  opacities,  cataracts,  and  actual 
blindness  from  acute  retinitis).  The  general  room  ventilation  appeared  good  in 
5  places,  fair  in  5,  and  bad  in  5  (the  latter  due  to  deoxidation  from  the  presence 
of  the  furnace  in  a  closed-up  room,  contamination  with  the  escape  of  gases  from 
the  furnace,  pollution  with  dust,  and  sometimes  smoke,  steam  and  spray  particles, 
stagnation  from  the  absence  of  any  means  to  promote  circulation  of  the  air,  and 
greatly  abnormal  temperature-humidit}-  relations).  In  the  latter  respect  it 
was  extremely  hot  in  3  places,  where  workers  had  to  be,  and  more  or  less  so 
in  8  more,  while  in  but  1  or  2  instances  were  any  shower  baths  at  hand  for 
the  use  of  the  furnacemen.  In  some  7  plants  fatigue  was  a  hazard,  due  to 
laborious  work,  and  occasionally  to  piece-work.  The  workday  ranged  from 
9  to  10  hours  in  all  places,  while  in  10  places,  only  ^  hour  was  allowed  for 
a  noon  recess.  Other  recesses  depended  upon  the  character  of  the  work.  The 
liability  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  bore  the  same  hazards  as  for 
other  processes  in  the  vicinity,  but  usualh^  was  great.  There  was  also  con- 
siderable hazard  of  chronic  poisoning  for  most  of  this  class  of  workers,  the 
poisons  extending  over  a  large  range,  depending  upon  materials  being  baked 
or  furnaced.  The  risk  came  usually  from  fumes  and  gases,  but  there  were 
the  additional  hazards  of  poisonous  dusts,  and  of  handling  poisons  in  many 
places.  The  opportunity  for  chronic  gas  poisoning  from  coal  gases  and 
unburned-  natural  gas  was  good  in  numbers  of  places.  The  industrial  induce- 
ment to  alcoholism  was  quite  pronounced  in  most  places,  and  due  to  many 
factors  (dust,  heat,  vitiated  atmosphere,  poisons,  and  the  lack  of  opportunity 
for    personal    cleanliness). 

The  general  appearance  of  these  workers  was  usually  below  the  average 
of  those  in  surrounding  processes,  while  in  some  places  they  complained 
bitterly  of' some  one  or  another  of  the  hazards  above  mentioned,  all  of  which 
were  usually  plainly  present.  Coiiuiients.  —  The  above  delineation  suggests 
the  corrective  measures  necessary.  In  particular  would  we  mention  the  in- 
stallation of  shower  baths  for  all  workers  in  such  processes,  both  for 
ph\-siological  reasons  as  well  as  personal  respect,  while  ever}-  effort  should 
be  made  to  keep  the  atmosphere  which  the  workers  are  required  to  breathe, 
and  to  be  otherwise  subjected  to,  as  nearly  like  that  meant  for  their  use  by 
nature  as  possible.  In  no  two  places  were  hazards  alike,  so  it  is  impossible  to 
suggest    spiecific    improvements. 

FORGING  AXD  BLACKSMITHING. 

This  process  is  reported  upon  as  investigated  in  52  plants  located  in 
various  parts  of  the  State  and  in  connection  with  the  following  industries : 
Agricultural  Implements;  Automobiles  and  Parts;  Brass  Manufacturing;  Car- 
riages,  Wagons   and   Parts ;    Railroad   Cars ;    Electrical   Apparatus ;    Ship   Build- 


125 

iiig;  Steel  Alanufacturing;  Foundries  and  Alachine  Shop  Products;  Marble 
and  Stone  Cutting;  Iron  and  Steel  Products;  Scales,  Balances  and  Cash 
Registers;  and  Rubber  Works.  In  a  general  way  the  process  was  about  the 
same  wherever  investigated.  In  the  o2  plants  there  were  1,608  wageearners, 
all  males,  engaged  in  forging  and  blacksmithing.  The  number  of  employes 
varied  in  different  plants  from  2  to  •250.  Methods  appeared  to  be  modern  in 
32  places,  fairly  so  in  13  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  7.  There  were  no 
labor  unions.  The  attitude  toward  employes  appeared  good  in  41  places,  fair 
in  9  more,  and  bad  in  2  other  (small)  places.  In  36  places  the  workers  were 
of  an  intelligent  type,  while  in  the  remaining  16  they  were  largely  ignorant 
foreigners.  Workmen  appeared  to  remain  \\  ell  in  46  places,  fairly  so  in  5 
others,  and  not  so  in  1  place.  Health  appliances,  consisting  principally  of 
hoods  and  stacks  over  furnaces  and  forges  to  remove  fumes  and  smoke,  were 
good  in  24  places,  fair  in  2  others,  and  absent  in  the  remaining  26.  In  9 
plants  there  were  either  placards  or  special  instructions  along  health  lines. 
In  7  plants  the  workers  enjoyed  the  privileges  of  sick  benefit  associations.  In 
17  places  (usually  small)  practically  all  the  workers  were  skilled,  in  6  more 
about  half  were,  while  in  the  remaining  29  the  large  majority  were  unskilled 
labor.  Of  the  total  number  of  workers  225  were  over  40  years  of  age,  1,373 
between  20  and  40,  and  12  under  20.  The  general  construction  of  the  shop 
was  good  in  23  places,  fair  in  11  more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  18.  In  14 
places  other  processes  were  going  on  in  the  forging  and  blacksmith  shop. 

Dust  was  a  negligible  factor  in  22  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  19,  and  bad 
in  the  remaining  11  places,  the  latter  including  some  of  the  larger  plants.  It 
consisted  chief!}-  of  sand,  metal,  forge  deposits  and  soot.  Quarters  were  clean 
and  orderh",  considering  the  nature  of  the  work,  in  16  places,  fairly  so  in  16 
more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  20.  Dry  sweeping  during  work  hours  was 
frequently  observed.  Dirt  floors  existed  in  many  places.  Dampness,  due  to 
wet  grinding  processes,  dirt  floors,  and  poor  location,  was  bad  in  3  places, 
fairly  so  in  4  others,  and  no  factor  in  the  remaining  45.  Light  was  bad  in 
8  places,  only  fair  in  14  more,  but  good  in  the  remaining  30.  Artificial  light 
was  very  poor  in  numbers  of  places.  In  others  some  workmen  were  con- 
stantly exposed  to  the  effect  of  excessive  light  and  heat  upon  the  eyes  with- 
out the  use  of  dark  goggles  to  protect  them.  The  ventilation  of  the  shops 
was  good  in  15  places,  fair  in  20  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  17,  due, 
principally,  to  the  absence  of  hoods  or  other  means  of  drawing  off  fumes 
from  forges  and  furnaces,  of  good  roof  ventilation  for  smoke  and  fumes,  and 
to  gas  yielding  salamanders  and  heating  stoves,  and  occasionally  oil  fumes. 
The  exposure  to  heat  was  a  fair  hazard  in  23  places,  and  bad  in  7.  The  effects 
of  cold,  due  to  inefficient  heating,  drafts,  and  passing  from  hot  places  to  cold 
places,  was  bad  in  14  shops,  and  a  fair  hazard  in  6  others.  For  the  type  of 
men  who  are  employed  in  blacksmith  shops,  the  work  is  not  ordinarily  par- 
ticularly fatiguing,  but  in  10  places  hurrying  piecework  was  evident,  while  in 
about  half  this  number  laborious  work,  long  hours,  speeding  up,  constant 
standing  in  one  place,  steady  strain,  faulty  postures,  jarring  processes,  and 
constant  pressure  of  objects  against  the  'body,  were  hazardous  features.  In 
all  places  loud  noises  were  present,  and  in  about  1/3  were  reverberating  and 
so  excessive  and  frequent  that  workers  were  necessarily  deafened  thereby. 
The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  5  places,  8^  to  9  hours  in  4  places, 
9i  to  10  hours  in  40  places,  and  lOJ  hours  in  3  places.  The  noon  recess  was 
1  hour  in  14  places,  |  hour  in  8  places,  and  ^  hour  in  the  remaining  30.     The 


126 

liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  considerable  in  30 
places,  fairly  bad  in  16  more,  and  negligible  in  the  remaining  6,  the  chief 
hazards  being  spitting  upon  dusty  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  common  drinking 
cups,  common  towels,  absence  of  inadequate  washing  facilities,  improper 
closets,  the  lack  of  medical  supervision  (so  as  to  keep  out  consumptive  work- 
men especially),  and  the  damaging  influences  of  dust,  dampness,  fumes,  heat, 
and  cold,  in  places  above  mentioned.  Further  than  this,  overcrowding  in 
some  places,  absence  of  first-aid  equipment  to  prevent  blood  poisoning  from 
trivial  injuries,  absence  of  hand  pads  or  gloves,  goggles,  and  the  use  of  wiping 
rags  from  doubtful  sources,  were  all  noted.  Poisoning  by  fumes  or  other- 
wise was  a  serious  hazard  in  23  plants,  fairly  so  in  6  more,  and  negligible  in 
the  remaining  23.  The  chief  danger  was  from  chronic  gassing,  due  to  the 
escape  of  fuel  fumes  and  smoke.  In  addition  tempering  and  case  hardening 
with  lead,  potassium  cyanide  and  oil,  were  carried  on  in  a  number  of  black- 
smith shops,  (these  processes  are  described  elsewhere).  The  industrial  in- 
ducement to  alcoholism  was  considered  negligible  in  24  places,  fairly  so  in  12 
more,  but  considerable  in  the  remaining  16,  the  principal  features  being  in- 
adequate drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  exposure  to  the  breathing  of  dust 
and  fumes,  and,  in  7  places,  of  excessive  heat  without  provisions  to  counteract 
its  effects. 

The  general  appearance  of  workmen  was  good  in  28  plants,  fair  in  15 
others,  and  bad  in  4.  (Reports  on  this  were  not  returned  in  the  case  of  5 
plants.)  The  chief  complaints  of  the  workmen  were  headaches,  coughs,  colds, 
rheumatism,  and  lumbago,  which  they  charged  to  fumes  and  exposures ;  also 
excessive  light,  loud  noises,  in  some  places  jarring  processes,  and  in  others 
the  exposure  to  the  hazards  of  other  processes.  A  fairly  common  observation 
among  workmen  was  impaired  hearing.  Comments.  —  The  general  effects  of 
forging  and  blacksmithing  are  along  the  lines  of  wear  and  tear,  with  emphasis 
upon  the  breathing  of  contaminated  air  in  a  large  number  of  places.  Im- 
provements should  consist  of  impervious  flooring  instead  of  dirt  floors,  efficient 
hoods  and  exhausts  over  all  furnaces,  forges  and  grinding  processes,  cool  air 
blasts  and  screens  for  workmen  in  hot  positions,  dark  goggles  for  excessive 
light,  cotton  for  the  ears  where  noise  is  excessive,  and,  as  in  all  hot  processes, 
the  providing  of  shower  baths.  The  hazards  mentioned  above  indicate  further 
corrections. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports,  there  were  986  deaths 
among  blacksmiths  for  the  years  1910,  1911  and  1912,  of  which  number  77 
died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  or  7.91%.  This  compares  very  favorably  with 
the  death  rate  from  the  same  cause  for  all  occupations  in  the  State  combined 
(13.3%),  and  even  with  agriculturists  (7.13%).  However,  the  vast  majority 
of  blacksmiths  are  in  small,  open  and  naturally  well  ventilated  shops,  rather 
than  the  large  plants  such  as  our  investigators  covered.  According  to  the 
U.  S.  Census,  18.8%  of  blacksmiths  died  of  heart  disease,  11.4  of  pulmonary 
tuberculosis,  10%  of  apoplexy,  9.7%  of  Bright's  disease,  and  8%  of  pneumonia. 

COREMAKING. 

This  foundry  process  is  too  well  known  to  require  description  here.  It 
was  investigated  in  the  following  lines  of  industry :  Brass  Founding,  Iron 
Founding,  Iron  and  Steel  mills,  Agricultural  Implements,  Automobiles,  Elec- 
trical   Apparatus,    Stoves    and    Safes,    and    several    Machinery    Manufacturing 


127 

firms.  Our  reports  are  based  upon  investigations  made  in  31  plants.  There 
were  a  total  of  989  employed  at  the  process,  of  whom  861  were  males  and 
128  were  females,  the  latter  in  6  different  plants.  Union  organizations  existed 
in  2  places.  An  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  employed  in  2  places,  fairly 
so  in  9  more,  and,  in  the  remaining,  the  employes  were  largely  ignorant 
foreigners.  An  excellent  welfare  attitude  toward  employes  existed  in  24 
places,  fairly  so  in  2  others  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  The  workers  in 
27  places  appeared  to  remain  well  at  the  process,  fairly  so  at  3  places,  and  not 
so  in  1.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hooded  drying  ovens,  workroom 
ventilating  apparatus,  goggles  and  respirators  (the  latter  where  needed),  were 
good  in  3  places,  fair  m  5,  and  absent  in  the  remaining.  In  6  "places  the 
employes  had  privileges  of  sick  benefit  and  pension  associations.  The  most 
of  the  workers  were  skilled  in  18  places  and  unskilled  in  the  remaining  13 
(this  feature  depended  chiefly  upon  differences  in  process).  Workrooms  were 
hygienically  constructed  in  16  places,  fairly  so  in  8,  and  not  so  in  the  remain- 
ing 7.  The  work  was  done  in  the  foundry  room  in  18  places  (in  none  of 
which  were  females,  although  some  were  in  places  only  partly  partitioned  off 
from  the  foundry  atmosphere).  .  On  the  other  hand  the  core  drying  ovens 
were  nearly  always  in  the  coremaking  workroom. 

Dt{st^  consisting  of  sand,  earths  and  mold  powders,  was  a  bad  feature 
in  5  places,  fairly  so  in  5  more,  and  negligible  in  the  remaining  21.  Quarters 
were  cleanly  in  20  places,  fairly  so  in  4  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  7. 
Dvnpncss,  due  to  the  nature  of  the  work  and  poor  location,^  was  a  bad  feature 
in  olaces.  Light  was  bad  in  4  places,  only  fair  in  2  others,  and  good  in  the 
rem.  ing  25.  The  general  aeration  of  quarters  was  good  in  14  places,  fair  in 
14,  ai.'  bad  in  the  remaining  3,  the  factors  being  fumes  and  smoke,  either 
•from  til  ■  foundry  or  escaping  from  the  drying  ovens.  Heat  was  no  factor 
in  22  plact:,  was  a  fair  hazard  in  6  and  bad  in  3  places,  due  to  proximity  of 
core  ovens  which  were  improperly  shielded  and  ventilated.  On  this  account 
workers  were  often  subjected  to  the  effects  of  alternation  between  heat  and 
x:old  drafts.  Fatigue  was  a  considerable  hazard  in  18  places,  fairly  so  in  11 
more  and  negligible  in  2,  due  principally  to  hurrying  piecework,  monotony, 
constant  standing,  and  less  often  to  such  features  as  laborious  work,  pro- 
longed faulty  postures,  and  loud  noises.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  2  places 
and  from  9  to  10  1/6  hours  in  all  but  1  place,  where  it  was  11  hours.  The 
noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  2  places,  f  hour  in  3  places,  and  \  hour  in  the 
remaining  26.  The  risk  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  negligible 
in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  21  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  6,  due  principally 
to  inadequate  washing  facilities,  poor  toilets,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence 
of  cuspidors,  use  of  common  cups,  and  occasionally  to  overcrowding.  Physical 
examination  of  workers  was  practically  unheard  of,  although  first-aid  pro- 
visions were  good  in  the  majority  of  places.  For  a  more  or  less  dirty  class 
of  work  such  as  this  is,  it  is  questionable  from  a  health  point  of  view  whether 
sexes  should  be  permitted  to  work  together.  The  liability  to  occupational 
[poisoning  was  negligible  in  11  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  11  others,  and  con- 
siderable in  the  remaining  9.  due  to  escaping  gas  fumes  and  smoke,  principally 
from  core  ovens,  and  the  breathing  of  brass  fumes  in  many  brass  foundries 
where  frequent  pouring  was  done,  and  the  coremaking  was  (Iniie  in  tlu'  saim' 
quarters.  The  inducement  to  stimulants  was  bad  in  11  places,  and  considerable 
jn   15  more,  due  to  the  lack  of  adequate  drinking  water   facilities,  places  other 


128 

than   the  work   rooms   and   saloons   in   which  to   eat,   and  to   the   depressing  in- 
fluences above  mentioned. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  "25  establishments^  a 
goodly  number  were  below  par  in  5  others,  and  especially  were  they  so  in  the 
remaining  place.  The  chief  complaints  of  workers  were  the  breathing  of 
burned  gas  fumes  and  smoke  which  escaped  from  baking  ovens,  causing 
headache,  nausea,  and  general  ill  health,  also  odors  from  inside  toilets  which 
were  improperly  ventilated.  Comments.  —  Corrective  measures  consist  in  sepa- 
rating this  process  from  the  general  foundry,  providing  seats  with  backs,  and 
the  proper  ventilation  or  separate  location  of  the  drying  ovens,  to  which  must 
be  added  features  of  general  sanitation.  Less  than  1/6  of  the  places  .were 
above  criticism   for  hygienic,  airy,  light  and  sanitary  quarters. 

IRON   FOUNDING. 

Iron  founding  includes,  properly,  the  melting  of  iron  and  pouring  it  into 
molds,  which  have  been  previously  prepared  by  the  molders  and  their  helpers, 
and  the  subsequent  opening  of  the  molds,  freeing  the  castings  from  mold  dirt, 
and  cutting  off  the  "gates"  from  the  castings.  In  the  iron  foundry  the  molders 
are  the  skilled  workers,  the  firemen  and  furnacemen  (see  Furnacing),  semi- 
skilled, while  a  considerable  percentage  of  unskilled  labor  is  employed  as 
helpers. 

Iron  founding  was  investigated  in  43  establishments,  in  14  cities,  empi  v- 
ing  a  total  of  4,721  v^^ageearners,  all  males.  The  process  was  investigat  in 
11  industries,  arranged  in  descending  order  as  follows:  Foundry  and  JV  .line 
Shop  Products,  15;  Iron  and  Steel  Mills,.  7;  Stoves  and  Furnaces,  ''  Agri- 
cultural Implements,  5;  Automobiles  and  Parts,  2;  Musical  Instfj  ;  ents,  2; 
Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  2;  and  one  each  of  the  following::  Enameling 
and  Japanning,  Electrical  Apparatus,  Safes  and  Vaults;  and  Iron  and  Steel 
Forgings. 

The  Mortality  Statistics  among  Molders,  according  to  the  Ohio  Vita! 
Statistics  Reports  have  been  discussed  in  Part  IV,  under  the  heading  of 
Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products  (q.  v.).  —  According  to  the  figures  sub- 
mitted by  the  Financier  of  the  International  Molders'  Union  of  North  America, 
the  Ohio  branch  of  the  Molders'  Union  suffered  204  deaths  during  the  five- 
year  period  from  1909  to  1913  for  which  death  benefits  were  paid  (there  were 
87  additional  deaths  not  coming  under  the  benefit  privilege),  the  chief  causes 
of  death  being,  in  order,  pneumonia,  30 ;  heart  trouble,  30 ;  tuberculosis,  27 ; 
and  violence,  18.  The  Sick  Fund  of  the  same  organization  presents,  also, 
through  its  Financier,  the  following  statements  and  figures  for  Ohio,  for  the 
year  1913: 

''The  following  list  gives  the  ailments,  the  number  of  members  receiving 
benefits,  the  number  of  weeks'  benefits  receivd  under  each  heading  and  its 
percentage  to  the  total  number  of  weeks'  benefits  paid  during  the  year   (1913)  : 


129 


No.  Members 
(Ohio)  Paid. 

1.  Throat    and    Lungs 262 

2.  Rheumatism     207 

3.  Accidents    : 255 

4.  Burns    132 

5.  Heart,  Kidney,  Liver,  Bladder  56 

6.  Lumbago,  Sciatica,  Neuritis..  107 

7.  Intestines   and  Rectum 59 

8.  Stomach    81 

9.  Tuberculosis    12 

10.     Miscellaneous     313 

Totals   1,484 


No.  Weeks 

Percentage 

{Ohio) 

of  Benefits 

Received. 

Paid. 

620 

10.7 

580 

15.6 

613 

16.5 

286 

7.7 

137 

3.7 

231 

6.2 

185 

5.0 

200 

5.4 

41 

1.1 

821 

22.1 

3,714 


100.0 


"With  but  few  exceptions  in  the  months  of  January,  February  and  Marcl; 
of  each  year  the  amount  of  Sick  Fund  collected  has  been  exceeded  by  the  sick 
benefits  paid  out.  The  only  explanation  for  the  large  outlay  that  characterizes 
the  first  quarter  of  each  year  is  the  severity  of  the  weather  that  particularly 
affects  those  who  are  subjected  to  the  heat  of  the  foundry  during  cast  time, 
comhined  with  the  poor  facilities  that  obtain  in  so  many  places  for  keeping 
the  shops  warm  during  the  daytime. 

"We  can  well  understand  that  foundry  conditions  are  such  as  to  promote 
the  prevalence  of  both  throat  and  lung  disorders,  and  also  rheumatism.  Tht 
violent  changes  in  temperature,  the  drafts  and  dampness  of  the  foundry,  are 
conducive  to  suffering  of  this  kind.  It  might  truly  be  said  that  rheumatism 
in  its  several  forms  appears  to  be  the  nearest  approach,  if  any,  to  what  might 
be  designated  as  an  'occupational  disease.'  We  are  not  making  this  as  a  positive 
statement,  but  rather  as  a  deduction  from  our  records  of  1913." 

The  places  which  our  investigators  inspected  were  non-union  in  30  in- 
stances, union  in  10  others,  while  this  was  not  reported  upon  in  the  remaining  3. 
The  employers'  interest  in  the  workers'  welfare  appeared  good  in  31  places, 
and  at  least  fair  in  8  more.  The  general  type  of  workers  was  good  in  24 
places,  fair  in  8  more,  but  largely  ignorant  foreigners  in  9  others.  The  majority 
of  the  workers  appeared  to  remain  steadily  at  the  process  in  37  places,  fairly 
so  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  3.  Especially  devised  health  appliances,  such  as 
hoods  and  exhausts  over  furnaces,  and  exhausts  and  air  conditioning  systems 
for  the  foundry  quarters,  were  good  in  6  places,  fair  in  4  more,  poor  in  1,  and 
absent  in  31.  Instructions  concerning  the  conservation  of  health  were  given  in 
an  organized  way  in  4  places,  and  to  some  extent  in  4  more.  In  6  of  the 
places  investigated  benefit  associations  existed  among  the  employes  (these  do 
not  include  the  benefits  provided  by  the  Holders'  Union).  Foundries  were 
hygienically  well  constructed  in  15  places,  fairly  so  in  10  more,  not  so  in  14, 
and  not  reported  upon  in  the  remaining  4.  Other  processes  than  Iron  Founding 
were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  in  19  of  the  plants  visited.  These  con- 
sisted of  Core-Making,  Pattern  Making  (Wood-working),  Metal  Grinding, 
Brass  Founding,  Tempering,  Machine  Shopping  and  various  others.  The  age- 
group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows: 


130 

No.  of 
Age  Groups.  Iron  Founders 

Over  45   jears 149 

Between  40  to  45 386 

Between   20  to  40 4,082 

Under   20    15 

Not   ascertained 89 

Total    ! 4,721 

The  presence  of  foundry  dust  appeared  a  negligible  hazard  in  7  places, 
fairl}-  so  in  17  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  19.  This  dust  was  composed 
chiefly  of  mold  sand,  iron  oxides,  iron,  dross,  slag,  cinders  and  dirt.  Of  these 
the  first  is  to  be  considered  the  most  harmful.  While  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  avoid  dust  in  iron  foundries,  the  presence  of  sub-processes,  such  as  Cast- 
ting  Cleaning,  and  Furnacing,  as  well  as  other  processes  (mentioned  above), 
which  might  be  carried  on  in  separate  quarters,  add  greatly  to  the  amount  of 
fine  dust  floating  in  the  air.  A  foundry  is  also  a  difficult  place  to  keep  clean 
and  orderly,  but  in  10  places  quarters  were  found  exemplary,  while,  in  the 
remaining  33,  heaps  of  mold  sand,  slag,  cinders,  castings  and  patterns  were 
allowed  to  accumulate  more  or  less  promiscuously,  while  little  attempt  was 
made  to  clean  up  quarters,  windows,  skylights,  etc.  Dirt  floors  were  found 
to  exist  in  about  one-third  of  the  places,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  in  about 
the  same  number  the  work  was  done  upon  concrete  floors.  Dampness  was  a 
bad  hazard  in  5  foundries,  fairly  so  in  5  more,  due  to  the  wetting  down  of  the 
earths  used,  careless  cleaning  of  castings,  wet  grinding,  and  the  absence  of 
floor  drains,  as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  drying  out  earth  floors  within  a  build- 
ing. Natural  light  was  good  in  a  total  of  30  plants,  fair  in  7  more,  and  bad 
in  the  remaining  6.  A  great  many  plants  were  supplied  with  eye-damaging, 
expensive  and  inefficient  artificial  lighting  by  naked  electric  lamps  (without 
reflectors  or  other  illuminating  enhancements).  The  air  content  appeared  good 
and  capable  of  being  kept  fairly  free  of  contaminating  gases  and  smoke  in  18 
places,  to  a  less  extent  in  17  more,  while  it  was  bad  throughout  most  of  the 
day  in  11  more.  The  usual  contaminations  were  mold  fumes,  gas  fumes, 
smoke,  dust,  and  steam,  while  in  a  number  of  places  the  air  was  badly  vitiated 
during  the  winter  seasons  by  the  presence  of  coke-'burning  salamanders  used 
for  heating,  placed  about  in  the  quarters,  and  yielding  immense  amounts  of 
invisible  coke  gas  due  to  the  absence  of  flue  connections  to  the  outside.  While 
there  is  a  necessary  exposure  to  heat  in  the  foundry  process,  it  was  usually 
short-intervaled,  and  a  negligible  hazard  to  the  workers  so  employed  in  20 
plants,  fairly  so  in  15  more,  but  bad  in  7.  In  a  number  of  places  it  could  have 
been  greatly  lessened  by  protective  devices,  more  room  for  its  diffusion,  ven- 
tilating fans,  air  blasts,  and  the  like.  On  the  other  hand,  cold,  due  either  to 
the  absence  of  inefficient  heating,  or  the  rush  of  cool  drafts  through  areaways, 
was  considered  a  hazard  to  many  workers,  in  at  least  15  places.  This  was  so, 
particular!}',  for  workers  about  the  outskirts  of  the  quarters  who  were  stand- 
ing before  benches  the  greater  part  of  the  day.  It  is  but  natural  that  chilling 
of  certain  muscles  and  groups  of  muscles,  which  at  intervals  must  be  called 
into  sudden  severe  straining  actions,  usually  in  hot  places,  should  be  greatly 
affected  with  sprains  and  rheumatism,  shown  as  lumbago,  wry  neck,  sciatica, 
neuritis,   severe  chest  and  shoulder  pains,  stiffness  of  joints,  etc.     Particularly 


131 

is  this  condition  favored  by  the  going  out-of-doors  to  closets,  or  at  noontimes, 
or  going  home  while  wearing  sweaty  underclothes.  Foundry  work  cannot  be 
considered  unduly  fatiguing  to  the  average  normal  adult,  but  it  may  be  made 
so  by  such  factors  as  the  following,  which  were  found  to  be  present  to  the 
extent  mentioned:  hurrying  piece-work,  22;  speeding  up,  8;  overly  laborious 
work,  7;  monotony,  9;  long  hours  at  the  manipulations  concerned,  7;  jarring 
processes  (pneumatic  tampers),  5;  prolonged  strain,  2;  constant  standing  in 
stooped  and  awkward  positions,  practically  all.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in 
2  places,  8  to  9  hours  in  12  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  19  places,  11  hours  in  1 
place,  and  12  hours  in  1  place.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  9  places,  |  hour 
in  6  places,  and  J  hour  in  27.  Overtime  was  quite  unusual.  The  liability  to  the 
contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  considerable  risk  in  all  except  pos- 
sibly 6  places.  The  chief  reasons  were  promiscuous  spitting  into  places  in 
which  the  dust  was  being  continually  "kicked  up,"  the  absence  of  cuspidors, 
and,  somewhat  less  often,  to  poor  washing  facilities  and  closets,  as  well  as 
crowding  together  of  workers.  In  a  very  few  plants  medical  supervision  pro- 
tected against  the  presence  of  the  consumptive  worker  and  in  all  such  first-aid 
equipment  and  hospital  arrangements  were  excellent.  There  was  not  much 
liability  to  poisoning,  outside  of  the  intervalled  'breathing  of  certain  amounts 
of  gas,  as  far  as  iron  founding  itself  was  concerned,  but  in  a  number  of  places 
brass  chills,  from  the  escape  of  brass  fumes,  and  tempering,  or  case  hardening 
with  lead  and  potassium  cyanid  were  a  hazard  to  the  founders  as  well  as  to 
the  special  process  workers.  The  relationship  of  industrial  alcoholism  to  iron 
founding  may  be  stated  as  directly  in  proportion  to  the  subjection  to  the  hazards 
named,  especially  fumes,  smoke  and  dust,  absence  of  proper  washing  facilities, 
and  inadequate  thirst-assuaging  provisions.  Furthermore,  in  numbers  of  places 
foundrymen  ate  their  lunches  largely  in  saloons,  unquestionably  as  much  from 
a  desire  to  get  out  of  the  foundry  air  as  for  any  other  reason. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  average  of  foundrymen  was  considered 
good  in  18  places,  fair  in  12,  and  much  below  par  in  8  (the  remaining  5  not 
being  reported  upon).  The  chief  complaints  of  foundrymen  were  the  inefficiency 
of  ventilating  arrangements,  which  necessitated  the  breathing  of  gases  and 
smoke,  particularly  in  the  winter  time,  the  absence  of  local  exhaust  systems  to 
handle  slag  dust,  dust  and  noises  from  other  processes,  and  shortcomings  in 
sanitary  arrangements.  Of  specific  occupational  diseases,  our  investigators  ob- 
served 2  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  due  to  lead  tempering  in  the  foundry  quarters. 
The  effects  of  great  heat  upon  the  face  and  skin  were  commonly  noted.  There 
v/ere  lots  of  complaints  of  bronchitis,  rheumatism,  diarrheal  attacks  and  cramps 
in  warm  weather  (the  last  two  usually  laid  to  drinking  cold  water,  but  recog- 
nized as  due  to  poisons  generated  within  the  system  by  over-heating  and 
fatigue),  inefficient  winter  heating,  poor  or  distantly  located  closets,  and  other 
questions  under  general  hygiene. 

Comments. —  Probably  the  greatest  single  need  in  foundries  is  "back  stop" 
cuspidors  and  warnings  to  keep  sputum  confined  so  as  not  to  contaminate  the 
dust  in  the  atmosphere.  Next,  and  equally  as  important,  the  presence  of  a 
shower  bath  with  instructions  upon  its  physiological  purport.  Next  we  would 
mention  the  doing  away  with  dirt  floors  as  soon  as  possible,  and  the  presence 
of  other  poisonous  or  hazardous  processes.  The  subject  of  drinking  water  is 
a  most  important  one,  and  attention  should  be  given  to  bubbling  fountain  sup- 
plies conveniently  located,  and  the  water  supplied  at  a  proper  temperature, 
neither  too  warm   nor   too   cold.     This   was    done   in   some   places.     In   certain 


132 

processes  men  should  wear  dark  goggles-  to  protect  the  eyes  from  excessive 
heat,  as  well  as  light,  while  there  should  always  be  respirators  available  to 
be  worn  temporarily  for  unavoidably  dusty  manipulations.  Hand  protectors 
should  'be  provided  for  handling  hot  scrap  and  iron.  As  there  is  some  danger 
from  "gassing"  in  all  foundries,  first-aid  equipment  should  include  a  resuscita- 
tion apparatus  as  well  as  a  tank  of  oxygen.  Founding  is  an  example  of  an 
industry  which  in  itself  should  be  harmless,  in  fact,  should  promote  health 
and  longevity  the  same  as  any  application  requiring  the  general  use  of  nearly 
all  of  the  body  functions.  It  is  rendered  dangerous  chiefly  because  it  is  done 
indoors.  On  this  account  a  great  many  precautions  are  necessary  to  be  taken, 
as  indicated,  including  the  general  medical  supervision  of  the  workers. 

Pneumatic   Tampers    are   veritable   engines   of    destruction   to   the  human 


Fig.  38.     Cleaning  Metal  Castings. 
An  unavoidably  dusty  and  gaseous  work.     Note  exhaust  pipe  beneath  table, 
which   has    openings   into   table   top.     Also    respirators    are   necessary.      Glo^■es 
furnished. 


nervous  system,  and  mechanisms  should  be  introduced  to  take  the  jar  off  the 
worker  as  well  as  instructions  in  the  proper  physiologic  use  of  the  same. 

Casting  Cleaning  is  necessarily  very  dusty  as  usually  performed  and 
whether  done  by  hand  with  steel  brushes,  or  with  sand  and  air  blasts,  or  by 
knocking  and  tapping,  laborers  so  engaged  should  be  protected  from  the  dust, 
probably  best  by  helmets  supplied  with  compressed  air  blasts.  Tumbling  of 
small  pieces  or  cleaning  within  cabinets,  or  other  dust  confining  means  should 
be  used  where  possible. 

BRASS  FOUNDING. 

Brass  Founding  is  very  similar  in  methods  of  procedure  to   Iron   Found- 
ing, except  that  a  number  of  small  melting  furnaces  are  commonly  used.    These 


133 

may  be  sunk  beneath  the  floor  level  and  crucibles  placed  within  them  to  hold 
the  metal  or  small  steel  furnaces  mechanically  handled  and  furjiished  with  a 
strong  blast  may  be  used.  There  are  many  other  types  of  furnaces.  The  cast- 
ings made  are  as  a  general  rule  much  smaller  than  those  turned  out  in  iron 
foundries,  and  in  much  greater  variety  of  shapes.  In  the  brass  foundry  prac- 
tically all  non-ferrous  metals  may  be  melted  down,  but  the  commoner  ones 
are  zinc,  copper,  lead,  aluminum,  bismuth,  tin  and  antimony,  as  well  as  some 
phosphorus,  nickel,  manganese.  In  this  connection  we  have  included  in  Brass 
Founding  all  processes  requiring  the  melting  down  and  pouring  into  molds  of 
non-ferrous  metals,  with  the  exception  of  some  printing  and  engraving  special 
machine  processes. 


... .        ,!,.,=^^^-^ ' 1 

Fig.  39.     Brass  Foundry. 
Each   furnace    (in   the   floor)    is   covered  with   an   iron  lid.     The    furnaces 
form  a  circle  around  the  flue  or  chimney,  the  base  of  which  is  shown  on  the 
left.     Note  the  pipe   above    frorn  which   fresh   air   is  blown   upon    furnacemen 
when  opening  furnace  tops. 


Our  investigations  covered  106  establishments,  located  in  8  cities,  and 
employing  2,148  wage-earners,  all  males.  Non-ferrous  metal  melting  was  in- 
vestigated in  connection  with  the  following  industries,  arranged  in  descending 
order:  Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  54;  Electrical  Apparatus,  10;  Stereo-  and 
Electrotyping,  5 ;  Iron  Founding  and  Machine  Shop  Products,  5 ;  Smelting 
and  Refining,  4;  Lead  Bar,  Pipe  and  Sheets,  3;  Coffin  Fixtures,  8;  Automobiles 
and  Parts,  3;  Iron  and  Steel  Mills  (brass  foundries),  2;  Printing  and  Publish- 
ing," 2 ;  Cutlery  and  Tools,  2;  Junk,  2;  Cash  Registers,  2;  Paint  and  Varnish 
Manufacturing,  2;  Flags  and  Regalia,  1;  Stencils,  1;  Musical  Instruments,  1; 
Railroad  Cars,  1;  Street  Cars,  1;  and  Rubber  Manufacture,  1. 


134 

Vital  statistics  unfortunately  do  not  distinguish  between  Iron  Holders 
and  Brass  Holders,  as  a  rule.  (Attention  is  called  to  the  statistics  given  in 
Part  IV  under  "Foundry  and  Hachine  Shop  Products,"  and  to  "Brass  and 
Bronze  Products;"  also  to  "Iron  Founding,"  Part  V.)  We  call  attention  to 
the  relative  rates  given  in  the  U.  S.  Hortality  Statistics  for  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis as  occurring  among  Iron  and  Steel  Workers  and  Brass  Workers.  In 
the  former  it  is  the  cause  of  16.3  deaths  out  of  every  100,  and  in  the  latter 
31.3  deaths  in  eVery  100. 

The  plants  investigated  employed  from  1  to  275,  a  large  majority  ranging 
from  8  to  20.  The  molders  belonged  to  unions  in  6  of  the  plants.  The  general 
attitude  toward  employes  seemed  good  in  50,  fair  in  21,  and  quite  bereft  of 
personal  interest  in  the  remaining  35,  usually  smaller  places  and  engaged  in 
some  of  the  odd  lines  mentioned.  The  class  of  workers  was  good  and  very 
largely  skilled  in  65  places,  fairly  so  in  29  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  12. 
In  25  of  the  places  investigated  the  workers  were  only  of  short  tenure,  and 
not  much  better  in  14  more.  In  16  places  exhaust  hoods  and  vents  were  found 
over  furnace  areas,  while  in  25  more  various  arrangements  to  improve  the 
atmosphere,  such  as  air  blasts  and  exhaust  fans,  were  present.  In  no  place 
were  means  adopted  to  confine  and  remove  brass  fumes  during  pouring.  In 
8  places  instructions  concerning  the  conservation  of  health  were  given  in^  an 
organized  way,  and  some  attention  was  given  to  this  in  6  more,  but  com- 
paratively nothing  in  the  remaining  92.  Brass  foundrymen  were  privileged  to 
join  sick  benefit  organizations  in  10  establishments.  The  general  construction 
of  'brass  foundries  was  determined  as  hygienically  good  in  42  places,  fairly 
so  in  21  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  43.  In  29  places  other  processes 
than  those  concerned  with  brass  founding  were  being  carried  on,  chiefly,  Core- 
making,  Hetal  Grinding,  Casting  Cleaning,  Hachine  Shopping,  Polishing  and 
Buffing,  Assembling  and  Finishing  Processes  (see  Factory  Processes).  Age- 
group   estimations   summed   up    as    follows : 

No.  of  Soft 
Age  Groups.  Metal  Founders. 

Over  50  years 40 

45  to  50  years ' 120 

40  to  45  years    296 

20  to  40  years •• 1,670 

Under  20  years 22 

The  general  hazards  of  dust,  dirt,  dampness,  darkness,  heat,  cold,  fatigue 
and  infections  did  not  differ  materially  from  those  already  described  under 
Iron  Founding.  The  workday  was  found  to  -be  8  hours  in  5  place,  8  to  9 
hours  in  42  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  58  places,  and  between  10  and  11  hours 
in  1  place.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  13  places,  54  hour  in  14  places, 
Y2  hour  in  76  places,  and  not  strictly  observed  in  the  remaining  3.  A  morning 
lunch  interval  was  occasionally  observed,  but  with  piece-workers  this  was 
quite  a  question  of  their  own  choice.  The  air  conditions  in  these  founding 
processes  were  determined  as  good  in  17  places,  only  fair  in  41,  and  decidedly 
hazardous  to  the  health  of  the  workers  in  the  remaining  48.  While  quarters 
were  usually  spacious  enough,  the  air  was  subjected  to  vicious  contamination 
with  brass  fumes,  usually,  also,  some  lead  fumes,  in  addition  to  the  features 
mentioned  under  Iron  Founding.  While  these  fumes  were  only  a  matter  of 
ten  to  fifteen  minutes   during  pouring  in  smaller  places   and  once  or  twice  a 


135 

day,   they  became   very   detrimental   to   health  where  they  were   more   or   less 
continuously  present. 

In  addition  to  brass  fumes  (the  poisonous  element  of  which  is  pre- 
eminently zinc,  and  causes  when  inhaled  "brass  chi'Us,"  or  "brassfounders* 
ague"),  and  lead  (present  as  a  hazard  through  handling,  chiefly,  but  also  in 
the  form  of  dust  and  fumes),  the  following  poisons  were  reported  by  in- 
vestigators ;  antimony,  sulphur  dioxide,  carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide, 
benzine,  phosphorus  and  "salamander  gases."  These  were  usually  present  in 
small  amounts  only,  but  very  liable  to  produce  slow  poisoning. 

Because  of  the  element  of  zinc,  and  ajlso  antimony  when  present,  (the 
breathing  of  the  hot  fumes  and  sublimation  products  of  which  cause  a  drying 
harshness  and  soreness  in  the  nose,  throat  and  chest,  and  oftentimes  a  nausea 
and  loss  of  appetite)  the  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  is  much  greater 
among  these  workers  than  among  Iron  Founders.  It  seems  to  be  a  tradition 
with  brass  molders  to  resort  to  stimulants  for  the  sole  purpose  "of  cutting 
the  slug"  in  the  throat,  and  to  reduce  the  likelihood  of  brass  chills,  as  well  as 
"metal  poisoning." 

The  average  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  62  places,  fair  only 
in  27  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  17.  In  42  places  brass  chills  were  com- 
plained about,  while  other  complaints  were  about  the  same  as  those  mentioned 
under  Iron  Founding.  In  35  plants  our  investigators  encountered  the  follow- 
ing cases  of  industrial  disease  complaints :  brass  poisoning  (including  "chills" 
mostly,  but  occasionally  "brass  itch")  104,  and  40  others  who  said  they  had 
had  chills  in  the  past,  or  in  places  where  they  had  previously  worked.  In  some 
places  1/3  to  ^  of  the  workers  were  suddenly  stricken,  usually  in  the  winter 
time,  during  snowstorms,  when  the  fumes  hung  about  especially  heavy  within 
the  quarters.  As  is  the  rule,  these  chills  came  on  at  night  time  several  hours 
after  the  workers  left  the  foundries.  The  wholesale  manner  in  which  they 
appeared  was  occasionally  mistaken  for  an  epidemic  of  some  sort,  resembling 
influenza.  In  addition  to  the  above,  our  investigators  discovered  4  cases  of 
chronic  lead  poisoning,  4  others  which  were  tentative,  and  3  others  who  had 
been  afflicted  in  the  past  with  lead  poisoning.  There  was  also  reported  1 
case  of  chronic  eczema,  1  case  of  benzine  dermatitis,  and  many  complaints  of 
catarrhal  conditions  of  the  nose,  throat  and  stomach. 

_^Comrments.  —  In  addition  to  what  has  been  said  under  Iron  Founding, 
means  should  be  taken  to  locally  ventilate  brass  pouring  areas.  This  may  be 
done  by  means  of  broad  hoods,  connected  with  tall  stacks,  or  a  suction  fan,  and 
each  hood  capable  of  raising  and  lowering  over  the  pouring  area.  Another 
method  is  to  apply  an  exhaust  hood,  connected  with  a  flexible  duct,  immediately 
over  each  crucible  and  its  pouring  edge,  and  lead  th^  fumes  off  to  a  collecting 
chamber.  While  crucibles  are  being  transported  from  furnaces  to  molds,  prac- 
tically all  the  fumes  can  be  kept  down  by  covering  the  surface  of  the  metal 
with  a  little  slag  or  sand.  A  hood  or  apron  applied  over  the  furnace  area  will 
usually  provide  for  removing  fumes  which  arise  when  the  furnaces  are  opened 
and  the  crucibles  are  removed,  and  lead  and  other  ingredients  added.  A  factory 
check  upon  the  reasons  why  employes  absent  thems-elves  from  work  would  prove 
instructive  lo  employers  and  bring  out  the  preponderance  of  preventable  causes. 

METAL  .GRINDING. 

The  process  of  metal  grinding  is  one  closely  associated  with  foundry  work 
*and  assembling  processes  upon  both  iron  and  soft  metals.-    It  properly  includes 


136 

also  the  dressing  of  castings  by  other  means  than  grinding,  such  as  "sand- 
blasting," "rattling"  in  tumbling  machines,  and  "chipping"  by  means  of  steel 
tools.  Sandblasting  has  been  considered  elsewhere,  while  a  word  will  be  given 
here  to  each  of  the  other  subsiduary  processes.  Metal  grinding  is  usually  per- 
formed with  emery  wheels,  which  may  be  stationary,  or  may  be  moved  about, 
over  large  surfaces  by  means  of  a  swing-belt  attachment.  Occasionally  it  is 
done  mechanically  by  a  series  of  traveling  emery  wheels,  which  pass  up  and 
down  over  the  surfaces  to  be  ground.  Sometimes  it  is  done  by  belts  covered 
with  emery  or  other  exceedingly  hard  abrasive  substances.  Carborundum  and 
corundum,  two  substances  of  diamond-like  hardness,  are  the  chief  abrasives 
used. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  64  establishments,  employing  a  total  of 
1,979  wage-earners,  all  males.  Modern  methods  appeared  to  obtain  in  42  places, 
fairly  so  in  14  more,  but  were  crude  compared  to  other  places  in  the  remain- 
ing 8.  In  but  few  places  were  the  workers  members  of  a  union.  Th«  general 
attitude  of  employers  toward  this  class  of  employes  appeared  good  in  45  places, 
fair  in  17  more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  2.  A  fairly  intelligent  class  of 
workers  were  employed  in  36  places,  while  more  or  less  ignorant  foreigners, 
often  non-English  speaking,  were  employed  in  the  remainder.  A  fair  per- 
centage of  the  workers  were  comparatively  old-time  employes  in  48  places, 
while  the  personnel  appeared  to  change  very  often  in  13  places  (the  remaining 
3  were  not  reported  upon).  Health  appliances,  especially  those  consisting  of 
blower  systems  to  remove  the  dusts  created,  were  good  in  20  places,  of  only 
partial  efficiency  in  13  places,  and  absent  in  the  remaining  31.  These  latter 
were  places  where  workers  were  employed  either  on  traveling  belt  grinders, 
which  they  steered  about,  and  which  were  difficult  to  protect,  or  were  engaged 
at  the  process  for  only  a  part  of  their  time,  as,  for  instance,  stove-mounters. 
Definite  instructions  regarding  the  health-hazards  of  the  work  were  given  in  an 
organized ,  way  in  8  places,  and  fairly  well  in  2  more,  but  the  remaining  54 
very  little  thought  was  given  to  the  effect  which  the  work  might  he  having  upon 
the  health  of  the  workers,  and  in  a  number  of  places  very  little  attention  was 
given  to  the  efficiency  of  the  blower  systems  present.  In  8  places  the  workers 
were  members  of  sick  benefit  associations,  conducted  by  the  industry  itself.  The 
work  was  considered  skilled  in  7  places,  semi-skilled  in  15  more,  while  entirely 
unskilled  labor  performed  it  in  the  remaining  42  places.  The  workroom  quarters 
were  hygienically  constructed  in  27  places,  fairly  so  in  12  more,  and  not  so 
in  21  (the  remaining  4  not  being  reported  upon  in  this  regard).  In  20  places 
other  processes  than  metal  grinding  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters,  such 
as  Sandblasting,  Machine  Shopping,  Foundry  Processes,  Forging  and  Smithing, 
Welding,  Brazing,  Furnacing,  and  Polishing  and  Buffing.  The  age-group 
estimations  summed  up  as  follows : 

No.  of 
Age  Groups..  '  Wage-Earners. 

Over  50  years   19 

45  to  50  years 20  ■ 

40  to  45  years 104 

20  to  40  years    1,803 

Under  20  years   32 

The  process  was  investigated  in  16  different  industries,  arranged  in 
descending   order    (by   number   of   places    investigated)    as    follows:     Foundry 


137 

and  Machine  Shop  Products,  11 ;  Cutlery  and  Tools,  11 ;  Brass  and  Bronze 
Products,  7;  Automo'biles  and  Parts,  6;  Iron  and  Steel  Mills,  4;  Stoves  and 
Furnaces,  4  (this  was  also  separately  investigated  in  the  stove-mounting  rooms 
in  a  total  of  15  establishments);  Agricultural  Implements,  4;  Musical  Instru- 
ments, 3 ;  Steel  Springs,  3 ;  Scales  and  Balances,  2 ;  Electrical  Apparatus,  2 ; 
Electroplating,  2 ;  Coffins  and  Burial  Cases,  2 ;  and  Sewing  Machines,  Safes 
and  Vaults,  and  Files,  each   1. 

Vital  Statistics  for  Metal  Grinders  are  not  given  separate  classification 
in  the  State  reports.  In  this  connection  it  is  probable  that  country-wide 
statistics  would  be  much  more  accurate,  both  because  the  larger  number  of 
deaths  concerned,  and  because  persons  with  bronchial  or  respiratory  diseases 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  migrate  to  western  states.  In  this  connection  we 
publish  the  following,  taken  from  a  report  submitted  by  the  Stove  Mounters' 
International  Union  (United  States  and  Canada).  These  workers  are  engaged 
about  one-fifth  of  their  time  in  metal  grinding,  usually  without  any  protective 
devices,  while  they  are  in  an  atmosphere  more  or  less  contaminated  with  the 
fine  dust  created  most  of  the  time. 

Figures  submitted  by  the  Secretary-Treasurer  of  the  Stove  Mounters' 
International  Union  for  death  benefits  paid  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
for  the  past  5  years,  show  the  four  leading  causes  of  death  and  percentages 
as  follows : 

Cause  of  Death  and  Percent  from  Each  Disease  Among 
Stove  Mounters  to  Whom  Death  Benefits  Have  Been  Paid  by 
Their  Organization  During  the  Past  Five  Years  in  the  United 
States  and  Canada  (Under  Date  of  September  17,  1914). 

Tuberculosis     27.95% 

Heart  Disease   20.93% 

Accidental    Deaths    11 .  67% 

Pneumonia    9.31% 

The  remaining  deaths  were  as  follows : 

Deaths  due  tcT Preventable  Causes 13.88 

Deaths  due  to  Degenerative  Diseases 9.28 

All  other  Deaths    ! ■ 7.03 

Total     100.00 

The  total  deaths  chargeable  to  lung  diseases  was  43.5%. 

The  hazard  of  breathing  dust  from  the  process  was  determined  as  neg- 
ligible in  9  places,  of"  a  fair  risk  to  the  average  worker  in  24  places,  and  bad 
in  the  remaining  31.  This  dust  was  invariably  of  a  most  harmful  character 
because  of  its  hardness,  crystalline  character,  and  fineness,  making  it  easy  of 
inhalation  and  swallowing.  In  12  places  quarters  were  kept  clean  and  orderly, 
fairly  so  in  17  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  35.  Methods  of  cleaning 
were  oftentimes  at  fault,  such,  for  instance,  as  dry  sweeping  or  brushing  up 
during  work  hours.  Only  dirt  floors  were  present  in  some  places,  and  in 
others,  floors,  walls  and  ceilings  were  of  such  construction  as  to  make  them 


138 

very  difficult  to  keep  clean.  Workers  were  found  engaged  in  very  damp 
quarters  in  6  places,  and  fairly  so  in  4  others.  Sometimes  the  virater  used  in 
connection  w^ith  the  grinding  process  was  the  cause  of  the  dampness.  There 
seemed  to  be  a  tendency  to  put  metal  grinding  in  dark  quarters.  In  12  places 
this  was  especially  noticeable,  while  light  was  inefficient  in  at  least  13  more. 
In  many  of  the  39  remaining  the  light  would  have  been  efficient,  providing 
windows  and  skylights  were  kept  reasonably  clean.  Heat  was  a  negligible 
factor  in  the  process  itself,  but  in  5  places  workers  were  exposed  to  this  hazard 
from  their  proximity  to  furnaces  and  other  hot  processes.  While  heating  was 
frequently  done  by  stoves  and  indoor  furnaces,  occasionally  the  ordinary 
salamanders  filled  /with  coke  were  used,  without  stack  and  hood  to  remove 
fumes.  In  at  least  5  places  entirely  inefficient  heating  methods  were  justly 
complained  of,  particularly  for  workers  who  stood  or  sat  still  all  day  with  their 
backs  toward  windows,  or  drafty  areaways.  The  general  room  ventilation  of 
grinding  quarters  was  good  in  12  places,  fair  in  39  more,  and  bad  in  21  (the 
remaining  2  not  being  reported  upon).  This  feature  in  about  one-third  of  the 
places,  however,  was  influenced  by  the  nature  of  other  processes  present,  par- 
ticularly founding,  forging,  and  the  like.  In  many  instances  these  workers 
were  exposed  to  fpundry  and  cupola  smoke,  core-oven  fumes,  etc.  Occa- 
sionally workers  were  just  as  much  subject  to  brass  fumes  and  "brass  chills" 
as  were  the  brass  founders  themselves.  Fatigue  was  considered  a  bad  hazard 
in  31  places,  and  fairly  so  in  29  more,  the  chief  features  arranged  in  descending 
order  of  importance  being :  monotonous  application  and  reduplication  of  move- 
ments, 26;  hurrying  piece-work,  24;  constant  standing  (still),  19;  loud  noises, 
13;  speeding  up,  6;  jarring  processes,  6;  laborious  work,  5;  faulty  postures 
long  maintained,  many;  seats  without  back  rests,  many;  long  hours,  several; 
constant  pressure  of  the  body  against  objects,  many.  In  4  places  work  arrange- 
ments were  adjusted  to  permit  variation  and  recreation.  For  a  large  per- 
centage of  workers,  especially  those  engaged  upon  small  pieces,  inactivity  was 
a  considerable  hazard.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  2  places,  8  to  9  hours  in 
13  places,  9  to  10'  hours  in  44  places,  and  10^  hours  in  1  place.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  13  places,  %  hour  in  6  places,  and  ^  hour  in  45  places 
Overtime  was  an  occasional  feature.  A  morning  lunch  hour  or  respite  from 
work  was  seldom  observed,  although  piece-workers  suited  themselves  about 
this.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  consider- 
able hazard  in  31  places,  fairly  so  in  21  more,  negligible  in  8,  and  not  reported 
lipon  in  the  remaining  4.  While  the  whole  gamut  of  hazards  as  listed  in 
Parts  II.  and  III.  was  encountered  here,  the  chief  ones  were ;  promiscuous 
spitting  upon  the  dusty  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  use  of  common  drink- 
ing cups,  inadequate  or  absent  washing  facilities,  poor  closets,  crowding  together 
of  workers  in  a  small  space  in  the  room,  and  the  lack  of  medical  supervision 
(particularly  to  keep  consumptive  workers  from  endangering  others).  Liability 
to  poisoning  existed  in  17  places,  and  especially  so  in  9,  due  to  work  upon  lead, 
lead  alloys,  and  the  breathing  of  brass  fumes.  Where  lead  is  over  5%  in  an 
alloy,  the  dust  from  such  alloy  may  produce  lead  poisoning.  Most  brasses  and 
bronzes  do  not  exceed  this.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  appeared 
negligible  in  7  places,  a  su'bject  for  consideration  in  34  places,  and  a  decided 
hazard  in  23,  due,  in  addition  to  the  depressing  influences  of  the  various  hazards 
above  cited,  to  the  inadequacy  of  proper  drinking  water  facilities.  While  any 
place  employing  a  large  number  of  workmen  would  be  almost  certain  to  have 
some  who  appeared  below  par  in  health,  this  was  particularly  so  among  a  rela- 


139 

tively  large  number  of  employes  in  13  places,  and  more  or  less  so  in  31  more. 
In  25  of  the  establishments  visited  the  workers  made  complaints,  which  were 
worthy  of  notice.  These  consisted  chiefly  of  the  constant  breathing  of  dust, 
causing  all  manner  of  nose,  throat,  bronchial  and  lung  troubles,  as  well  as 
dyspepsia,  bowel  trouble,  and  middle  ear  gatherings.  Most  of  the  complaints 
concerned  general  sanitary  matters,  and  occasionally  the  breathing  of  fumes, 
vapors  and  smoke  from  other  processes.  In  17  plants  the  investigators  came 
across  24  cases  of  industrial  sickness,  as  follows :  Chronic  Lead  Poisoning,  5 ; 
Pulmonary  Siderosis,  5  positive  and  4  tentative;  frequent  attacks  of  Brass 
Poisoning,  2;  Bronchitis,  2;  Tuberculosis,  2;  Pneumonia,  1;  Tubercular  Emp- 
yema, 1;  Brush  burns  of  the  hands,  1;  Conjunctivitis,  1.  As  stated  under 
Factory  Processes,  here  too,  the  vast  majority  of  such  cases  are  in  hospitals, 
dispensaries  and  various  institutions,  or  at  home,  to  which  the  existing  system 
of  morbidity  statistics  does  not  extend  to  any  degree  of  efficiency  at  the  present 
time.     (See,  however,  Part  II.  and  Part  VI.) 

Comments.  —  Our  analyses  show  that  only  5  plants  could  be  considered 
entirely  healthy  places  in  which  to  work.  The  better  control  of  the  dust  (in  11 
places  no  attempts  whatever  were  made  to  control  it)  is  the  first  essential,  while 
shorter  work  hours,  alternation  of  work  to  overcome  monotony,  and  the  features 
mentioned  under  the  respective  hazards  above,  as'  well  as  medical  examination 
and  supervision  are  necessary  to  control  health  in  this  entirely  unnatural  and 
hazardous  process.  The  wearing  of  a  piece  of  board  or  metal  prevents  harmful 
pressure  against  the  person. 

TUMBLING  consists  in  placing  a  number  of  castings  (usually  small  ones) 
in  a  revolving  cylinder,  called  a  "rattler",  in  order  to  shake  mold  dust  oi¥  of 
them,  as  well  as  tO'  smooth  down  certain  imperfections.  The  cylinder,  which 
should  be  -entirely  enclosed,  since  it  creates  an  immense  amount  of  dust,  was 
found  not  to  be  so  in  a  number  of  instances.  However,  in  some  places,  a  very 
efficient  air  exhaust  or  blast  system  controlled  all  dust  arising  therefrom.  The 
process  is  very  noisy. 

CHIPPING  of  iron  and  steel  castings  is  another  exceedingly  dusty  and  also 
dangerous  procedure. from  the  flying  particles  which  are  created  by  the  use  of 
both  hand  or  pneumatic  tools,  and  from  which  a  considerable  part  of  the  1,220 
working  men  (this  was  the  number  compensated  for)  lost  their  eyesight  in  the 
State  in  the  year  1913.  Outside  of  the  use  of  respirators,  individual  goggles 
(to  prevent  the  spread  of  eye  diseases),  and  cotton  in  the  ears,  it  is  exceedingly 
difficult  to  protect  the  workers  in  this  procedure.  Where  pneumatic  tools  are 
used  the  noise  is  deafening,  while  the  shocks  produced  to  the  nervous  system 
by  holding  the  tools  is  most  damaging.  Short  hours,  work  variations,  physical 
examination  upon  employment,  and  medical  supervision,  should  be  instituted. 

SAND  BLASTING. 

Sand  blasting  is  a  process  in  which  fine  sand  or  similar  hard  substance  is 
forced  through  a  pipe  by  compressed  air  against  objects  either  for  the  purpose 
of  cleaning  their  surfaces  or  of  giving  them  an  etched,  frosted  or  rough 
effect.  Hence,  the  process  is  used  upon  a  considerable  variety  of  materials.  As 
it  is  very  rapid,  usually  only  a  few  workers  are  so  employed  even  in  very  large 
establishments. 

Our  investigations  covered  the  process  in  9  diff'erent  industries,  viz.. 
Automobiles,  Cars,  Carriages,  Electrical  Apparatus,  Brass,  Iron,  Glass,  Cutlery 


I40 

and  Tools,  and  Machine  Manufacture.  There  were  51  wage-earners,  all  maks, 
found  so  emplo3'ed.  For  some  work,  considerable  skill  is  necessary,  but  in  the 
majority  of  instances  it  is  a  process  for  unskilled  labor.  Retention  at  the 
process  was  good  in  3  places,  fair  in  3,  and  very  brief  in  the  remaining  3. 
Health  appliances,  consisting  of  isolation  of  the  process  in  a  room  by  itself  and 
within  a  cupboard  through  which  the  worker  inserted  his  hands,  or  'the  wearing 
of  a  helmet  covering  the  entire  head,- — these  features  were  found  good  in  8 
places,  fair  in  3,  and  practically  absent  in  the  remaining  3.  Instructions  to  limit 
the  dust  in  order  to  conserve  the  health  of  the  worker  were  good  in  5  places, 
but  very  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  same  in  the  remaining  4.  In  but  1  place 
did  the  workers   enjoy  the  privilege  of  a  sick  benefit  association.     The  work 


Fig.  40.     Saxdelastixg. 

The  worker  needs  protection  from  breathing  fine  dust  incident  to  this  class 
of  work,  even  though  it  is  done  out-of-doors.  Note  besides  respirator,  special 
suit  and  cap. 


was  done  in  the  same  quarters  with  other  processes  in  8  instances,  so  that  other 
workers  were  exposed  to  the  fine  dust  created.  Of  all  the  employes,  13  were 
over  40  years  of  age  and  38  under  40. 

Dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  was  a  negligible  factor  in  2  places,  a  fair 
hazard  in  4,  and  bad  in  3.  Cleanliness  of  quarters  took  about  the  same  propor- 
tions. Dampness  was  no  feature  of  the  process,  nor  were  harmful  light  effects. 
Heat,  due  to  the  proximity  to  other  processes  as  a  rule,  was  bad  in  1  place,  fair 
in  2  more,  and  no  feature  in  the  remaining  6.  Cold  weather,  due  to  performing 
the  work,  protected  only  by  a  roof,  was  a  feature  in  2  places.  Fatigue  was  not 
a  special  hazard,  although  hurrying  piecework,  monotony,  and  constant  standing 
were  features  in  J  of  the  places.     The  workday  was  from  9  to  10  hours  in  all 


141 

places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  1  place,  f  hour  in  3,  and  J  hour  in  5 
places.  The  liability  to  the  contracting  of  communicable  diseases  was  negligible 
in  3  places,  a  fair  risk  in  5,  and  bad  in  1,  due,  principally,  to  the  breathing  of 
fine  dust  in  quarters  where  there  was  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors, 
inadequate  washing  facilities  and  improper  closets,  and  the  failure  to  inquire 
into  the  fitness  of  the  workers  for  such  work.  Poisoning  was  no  feature. 
The  general  factors  favoring  stimulantism  were  the  irritating  effects  of  fine 
dust  inhaled  and  swallowed,  and  the  absence  of  good  drinking  water  facilities 
in  some  places.  The  health  appearance  of  the  workers  was  not  good  in  J  of 
the  places.  The  workers'  complaints  were  the  breathing  of  dust,  skin  irritation 
in  hot  weather,  and  the  inefficiency  of  some  of  the  hoods  used,  while  in  1  place 
the  manager  said  they  were  having  it  done  at  night,  because  it  made  so  much 
dust!  Comments.  — Snch  work  should' he  done  in  a  manner  to  keep  the  dust 
away  from  the  employe,  such  as  confining  the  process  within  an  impervious 
cupboard,  through  which  armholes  are  made,  or  having  it  done  in  a  dust-tight 
room  in  which  the  worker  should  be  supplied  with  an  impervious  suit  and 
helmet  to  which  is  attached  an'air  tube  supplying  him  with  fresh  outdoor  air 
under  pressure.  The  simple  wearing  of  respirators,  even  of  helmets,  without 
such  air  tubes  is  not  at  all  efificient,  as  can  be  demonstrated  by  noting  the  amount 
of  fine  dust  settled  upon  the  workmen's  features  when  such  coverings  are  re- 
moved. ■  Many  places  substitute  sandblasting  by  cleaning  small  pieces  in  a 
rattler.  For  large  work,  the  Wedemeyer  sand  blast  rooms  should  be 
investigated. 

POLISHING  AND  BUFFING. 

The  processes  of  Polishing  and  Buffing  are  so  similar  and  work  is  so  often 
interchanged  that  they  are  considered  together.  Polishing  is  done  on  emery 
wheels,  or  spindles  covered  with  a  composition  of  abrasive  material,  which 
gives  a  smoothness  to  castings ,  much  in  advance  of  that  secured  by  metal 
grinding,  where  the  action  is  rougher.  Buffing  is  a  follow-up  process  which 
glosses  the  metal  parts  still  further  after  they  liave  been  polished.  Buffing  is 
usually  done  with  wheels  composed  of  layers  of  fabrics  tightly  compressed  and 
sometimes   infiltrated  with  finely  abrasive  powders. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  51  plants,  located  in  11  cities,  and  em- 
ploying a  total  of  864  wage-earners,  all  but  2  of  whom  were  males.  The 
number  of  employes  varied  from  2  to  125  in  a  single  plant.  The  females  were 
engaged  in  a  fibre  comb  factory. 

The  industries  in  which  this  process  was  investigated  were  as  follows : 
Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  15;  Electrical  Apparatus,  5;  Mirror  Making,  5; 
Cash  Registers,  3;  Stoves  and  Furnaces,  3;  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop 
Products,  3;  Coffin  Fixtures,  3;  Cutlery  and  Tools,  3;  Copper,  Tin  and  Sheet 
Metal  Goods,  2;  and  1  each  of  the  following — Automobiles  and  Parts; 
Jewelry;  Regalia;  Scales  and  Balances;  Sewing  Machines  and  Parts;  Scientific 
Instruments;  Fibre  Combs;  Aluminum  Combs;  Signs  and  Advertising  Novel- 
ties. The  metals  or  alloys  usually  worked  upon  were  brass,  bronze,  aluminum, 
lead  and  nickel  plated  objects. 

The  State  Vital  Statistics  do  not  give  sufficient  reports  to  include  here, 
but  the  following  is  taken  from  a  report  submitted  by  the  General  Secretary- 
Treasurer  of  the  Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers,  Brass  and  Silver  Workers 
Union   of   North   America ; 


142 

Of  197  deaths  which  occurred  among  Polishers  and  Buffers  in  the  five- 
year  period  from  June  1st,  1909,  to  -May  31st,  1914,  according  to  the  record 
of  death  claims  paid,  the  chief  causes  of  death  and  the  percentages  were:  — 

Polishers    and    Buffers. 

No.  of 

Cause  of  Death.  Cases.     Percentage. 

Tuberculosis    65  33 . 0 

Pneumonia    26  13 . 2 

Heart  Disease   22  11.1 

Violence  (including  6  suicides)   16  8.1 

Other  preventable  deaths 14  7.1 

Other  deaths  from  degenerative  diseases 47  23.9 

Permissible  deaths 7  3.6 

Total    ........' ■ 197  100.0 

The  average  (median)  age  at  death  of  these  197  workers  was  39.7  years. 
Three  of  the  plants  visited  were  union  places,  the  balance  being  non-union 
or  open  shop.    The  employers'  interest  in  employes'  welfare  appeared  good  in  30 


Fig.  41.     Buffing  Metals. 

Note  goggles,  gloves,  chest  protector,  good  natural  and  artificial  light,  as  well 

as  ventilating  system. 


143 

places,  fair  in  10,  and  poor  in  7,  the  remaining  4  not  being  reported  upon.  An 
intelligent  type  of  workers  was  found  in  38  places,  fairly  so  in  8  more,  and 
ignorant  foreigners  in  the  remaining.  There  was  a  good  degree  of  steadiness  at 
the  trade  in  35  places,  fairly  so  in  12  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  4.  Health 
appliances,  consisting  of  blower  systems  to  remove  dust,  lint,  etc.,  from  the 
process,  were  present  in  38  places  where  needed,  and  absent  in  4  (brass,  combs, 
coffins,  jewelry).  In  19  of  the  places  where  they  were  present,  they  were  not 
efficient;  occasionally  they  were  not  in  working  order  at  all.  Occasionally  other 
appliances  to  improve  room  ventilation  were  also  found.  In  3  places  organized 
instructions  concerning  the  conservation  of  health  were  well  given,  and  some 
attention  was  directed  to  this  in  3  more.  In  3  places  the  wage-earners  enjoyed 
the  privileges  of  sick  benefit  associations.  The  general  construction  of  work 
quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  15  places,  fairly  so  in  9  more,  'but  not  so  in 
the  remaining  27.  In  22  places  other  processes  were  also  being  carried  on  in  the 
same  quarters,  such  as  Electroplating,  Machine  Shopping,  General  Factory 
Processes,  Founding,  Lacquering,  Metal  Grinding,  Soldering,  Glass  Melting,  and 
Tinning. 

Dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  was  a  negligible  hazard  in  12  places,  fairly 
so  in  17  more,  but  was  bad  in  the  remaining  22.  It  consisted  chiefly  of  iron, 
steel,  brass  and  bronze  alloys,  other  soft  metals,  glass,  etc.,  which  were  being- 
worked  upon,  as  well  as  the  components  of  the  polishing  wheels  (emery,  silica, 
etc.)  and  of  the  buffing  wheels  (cotton  and  lint  fibres,  glue  substances,  etc.).  In 
some  places  it  was  kicked  up  from  tfie  floors  because  of  inefficient  cleaning,  and 
also  dry  sweeping  during  work  hours.  These  dusts  are  of  course  the  most  harm- 
ful to  which  workers  may  be  subjected,  since  they  are  exceedingly  hard,  crystal- 
line, and  very  fine,  or  irritating,  and,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  poisonous. 
There  are  so  many  consumptives  in  the  trade  that  the  infection  factor  is  also 
added.  The  general  cleanliness  of  quarters  was  determined  as  good  in  15  places, 
fairly  so  in  15  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  21.  This  usually  was  due  to 
negligence  in  cleaning  up,  but  oftentimes  also  to  the  type  of  quarters  occupied. 
In  many  such  places  windows  and  skylights  were  apparently  very  seldom 
cleaned,  or  walls  painted  or  whitewashed.  In  7  places  dampness  and  poor  light 
were  hazards.  General  room  ventilation  was  very  good  in  16  places,  fairly  so 
in  17  more,  but  close  and  confined,  and  often  contaminated  with  various  fumes 
and  gases  from  other  processes  in  the  remaining  18.  In  but  2  places  were 
workers  exposed  to  heat,  and  here  it  was  not  bad.  In  practically  all  places 
polishers  and  buffers  were  subject  to  the  effects  of  fatigue,  and  particularly  so  in 
22.  The  chief  reasons  for  this  were  steady,  monotonous  piece-work  under 
constant  application  and  considerable  strain  with  eyes  and  body  almost  rigidly 
fixed  for  a  total  of  hours  at  a  time  throughout  the  day.  Constant  standing  in 
partially  stooped  postures  with  very  little  variation  were  also  other  hazards. 
The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  1  place,  8  to  9  hours  in  14  places,  9  to 
IC  hours  in  30  places,  and  10  to  11  hours  in  2  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1 
hour  in  11  places,  |  hour  in  7  places,  and  J  hour  in  the  remaining  33.  The 
question  of  other  recesses  was  very  largely  a  matter  of  the  workman's  own 
choice,  since  they  were  employed  at  piece-work.  The  liability  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  communicable  diseases  was  great  in  24  places,  and  considerable  in  at 
least  18  more,  due  particularly  to  promiscuous  spitting  on  dusty  floors  and 
the  absence  of  cuspidors,  while  in  a  fair  percentage  of  places  washing  facilities 
were   absent   or   very   inadequate;    often    closets    were   poor   and    common    cups 


144 

used  by  all  workers  for  drinking  purposes.  In  some  places  workers  were  un- 
duly crowded  together.  Occasionally,  some  were  seen  who  were  wearing 
respirators  and  endeavoring  'by  this  means  to  filter  out  the  dust  from  the  air 
which  they  inhaled.  Liability  to  industrial  poisoning  existed  in  38  of  the  plants 
visited,  and  especially  so  in  21.  This  was  due  in  about  half  of  the  instances  to 
the  presence  of  other  processes  (see  those  mentioned  above),  in  the  balance  it 
was  due  to  working  upon  poisonous  metals  and  alloys,  particularly  those  com- 
posed of  lead,  or  rich  in  lead  component.  The  various  poisons  mentioned  to 
which  polishers  and  buffers  were  found  subjected  were  lead,  potassium  cyanid, 
nitric  acid  fumes,  phenol,  amyl  acetate,  benzine,  alum,  crude  paraffin,  and 
"metal  dust",  furnace  gas  fumes,  brass  fumes,  plating  fumes,  and  acid-dipping 
fumes.  The  exposures  varied  greatly  as  to  frequency,  amount  and  workplace. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  and  to  other  forms  of  stimulantism 
were  considered  a  marked  hazard  in  12  places,  and  more  or  less  so  in  nearly 
all  of  the  balance,  based  chiefly  upon  the  fatigue  factor  concerned,  the  dust 
breathed,   and   the   opportunities    for   slow   poisoning. 

However,  in  24  plants  the  general  health  appearance  of  the  workers  was 
good,  in  14  it  was  determined  as  fair,  and  in  13  bad.  The  principal  complaints 
of  the  workers  were  monotony,  danger,  metal  dust,  acid  fumes,  blowers  and 
exhausts  inefficient,  and  poor  sanitary  arrangements,  while  their  more  personal 
complaints  were  coughs,  indigestion,  rheumatism,  and  skin  affections.  In- 
vestigators encountered  17  cases  of  industrial  diseases  in  8  plants  as  follows : 
chronic  lead  poisoning,  5  positive,  1  tentative,  and  1  past ;  brasi  poisoning,  1 . 
positive,  1  tentative,  and  6  with  "brass  itch" ;  severe  bronchial  affections  were 
particularly   mentioned   in   2   instances. 

Comments.  —  As  the  constant  breathing  of  harmful  dust  and  the  con- 
tinual assuming  of  unnatural  and  strained  postures  are  foreign  to  the  physiology 
of  the  human  organism,  it  is  highly  necessary  that  dust  be  kept  out  of  the 
breathing  atmosphere  and  to  introduce  measures  which  will  vary  the  work 
for  this  class  of  workers.  Unfortunately,  it  is  looked  upon  as  a  skilled  trade 
and  this  makes  it  difficult  to  introduce  work  variations.  This  does  not  detract, 
however,  from  its  hazardous  character.  The  toll  of  deaths  from  preventable 
causes  bears  this  out.  It  is  a  process  of  modern  times.  One  point  which 
particularly  impressed  our  investigators  was  that  where  blower  systems  were 
intalled  they  were  often  very  inefficient  at  the  time  of  inspection  and  were 
said  to  be  so  most  of  the  time.  There  appears  to  be  but  one  way  of  getting 
around  this  —  to  make  it  somebody's  business  in  each  such  room  to  see  that 
such  systems  are  in  working  order  and  to  provide  for  compensation  for  this 
purpose.  A  metal  or  wooden  "chest-protector"  prevents  harmful  pressure 
against  the  person.  Other  features,  the  liability  to  poisoning,  etc.,  require  the 
same  precautions  as  elsewhere.  Especially  should  medical  supervision  be 
adopted  for  this  class  of  workers,  as  they  are  at  a  process  which  appears  to 
take  about  20  or  25  years  off  of  their  lives. 

MACHINE    SHOPPING. 

The  process  of  Machine  Shopping  includes  a  considerable  number  of 
sub-processes  and  operations  upon  cast  metals.  These  consist,  principally,  in 
turning,  lathing,  planing,  drill-pressing,  punch-pressing,  threading,  tapping,  cold 
riveting,  sawing,  cutting,  assembling,  and  the  like.     All  of  these  processes  are 


145 

characterized  by  the  fact  that  they  are  not  carried  on  ordinarily  with  the  aid 
of  heat,  nor  is  there  much  necessary  creation  of  fine  dust.  The  workers  usually 
are  more  or  less  skilled.  (Strictly  routine  machine  operations  carried  on  as 
piece-work  by  unskilled  laborers  have  been  considered  mostly  as  General  Factory 
Processes.) 

Machine  Shopping  was  especially  investigated  in  a  total  of  56  plants, 
located  in  8  cities,  and  employing  4,082  wage-earners,  of  whom  3,897  were 
males,  and"  185  (engaged  in  2  factories),  were  females.  These  latter  were 
working  upon  machines  which  threaded  bolts,  nuts,  etc. 


Fig.  42.    A  Model  Machine  Shop. 
Maintained  by  a  glass  factory. 


The  process  was  investigated  in  connection  with  the  following  industries, 
arranged  in  descending  order :  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products,  16 ;  Cutlery 
and  Tools,  13 ;  Automobiles  and  Parts,  6 ;  Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  4 ;  Elec- 
trical Apparatus,  3 ;  Agricultural  Implements,  2 ;  Springs,  2 ;  and  1  each  of  the 
following:  Cars;  Coffins,  Copper  and  Tin;  Files;  Furniture;  Shipbuilding; 
Stoves;  Bolts  and  Nuts;  Scales  and  Balances;  Stamps  and  Stencils;'  and  Iron  and 
Steel  Forgings. 

Mortality  Statistics  for  Machinists  have  been  stated  in  Part  IV.,  under 
Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products. 

Only  one  plant  visited  was  a  union  shop,  the  balance  being  "open  shop". 
The  employers'  interest  in  the  workers'  welfare  appeared  very  good  in  42 
places,  fair  in  7  more,  bad  in  3   (and  not  reported  upon  in  the  remaining  4). 

10      O.    D. 


146 

In  some  14  plants  a  good  percentage  of  ignorant  workers  were  employed  in 
various  helping  and  routine  processes.  Retention  of  workers  at  the  places  em- 
ployed seemed  to  be  good  in  all  except  4  instances.  Usually,  special  health  ap- 
pliances for  machine  shop  processes  are  not  needed.  Safety  devices  were  almost 
everywhere  present.  In  6  plants  excellent  arrangements  were  found  for  general 
room  ventilation.  Organized  instructions  along  health  lines  were  given  in  7 
places,  and  some  attention  to  this  in  1  or  2  more.  The  workers  had  sick  benefit 
privileges  in  factory  organizations  in  6  instances,  although  in  2  of_  these  only 
a  part  were  covered.  The  general  construction  of  machine  shop  quarters  was 
good  in  35  places,  fair  in  6,  and  bad  in  10  (the  remaining  5  not  being  reported 
upon).  In  22  places,  other  processes  were  at  hand,  such  as  Metal  Grinding, 
Polishing,  Tempering,  Wood  Working,  Painting,  Welding,  Blacksmithing  etc. 
Age  group   estimations   summed  up   as    follows : 

Number  of 
Age  Groups.  Wage-earners 

Over  50  years 75 

45  to  50 271 

40  to  45 491 

Under  40 ' 3,245 

Dust  was  no  hazard  in  35  places,  and  in  but  3  was  it  marked  enough  to  de- 
mand attention  and  here  it  was  due  to  other  processes  (grinding,  polishing). 
Thirty-two  places  were  kept  very  clean  and  orderly,  10  more  fairly  so,  and  the 
remaining  14  not  so.  Cuspidors  and  refuse  cans  were  present  more  often  in 
machine  shops  than  most  other  places  investigated.  Dry  sweeping  during  work 
hours  was  occasionally  observed.  In  5  places  quarters  were  rather  damp,  due 
to  location,  and,  occasionally,  wet  grinding.  Natural  light  was  good  in  46 
places,  fair  in  5  more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  5.  In  a  considerable  number 
of  places  artificial  lighting  was  done  chiefly  with  naked  electric  lamps,  sus- 
pended overhead,  and  often  very  inefficient  as  regarded  general  room  illumina- 
tion. In  1  .place  mercury  arcs  wefe  used  for  lighting.  The  air  condition  of 
the  various  machine  shop  processes  seemed  good  in  41  places,  fair  in  12  others, 
and  poor  in  only  3.  This  high  percentage  of  good  air  condition  is  due  to  the 
usually  spacious  quarters,  and  the  absence  of  industrial  factors  in  the  process 
to  contaminate  it.  Fatigue,  in  the  general  routine  of  machine  shop  work,  is  a 
negligible  factor,  but  a  good  percentage  of  the  employes  were  found  to  be  sub- 
jected to  various  hazards  as  follows:  hurrying  piece-work,  14;  excessive  noise, 
1  12;  constant  standing  still,  8;  monotonous  application,  3;  while  sedentary 
!  processes  on  chairs  or  stools  without  backs,  faulty  postures,  jarring  processes, 
(pneumatic  tools,  drop  presses,  etc.)  and  prolonged  pressing  of  objects  against 
the  person  were  observed  in  many  manipulations.  The  workday  was  found  to 
be  from  9  to  10  hours  in  all  except  one  place,  where  it  was  lOJ.  Saturday 
afternoons  were  about  evenly  "off"  and  "on".  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in 
1  place,  I  hour  in  48  places,  I  hour  in  2,  and  not  determined  in  the  remaining  1. 
The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  considerable  in  6 
places,  fair  in  21  more,  and  questionably  negligible  in  the  remaining.  The 
chief  factors,  where  present,  were  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  poor 
closets  and  washing  facilities,  and  promiscuous  spitting.     The  oil-soaked  floors 


147 

and  lack  of  dust,  however,  in  a  great  majority  of  places,  rendered  the  hazard 
less  likely.  Another  hazard  observed  w^as  the  likelihood  of  infections  from  the 
use  of  wiping  rags  and  waste  from  any  and  all  sources.  Particularly  should 
be  mentioned  here  virulent  pus  infections  (blood  poisoning),  erysipelas,  lock- 
jaw, as  well  as  the  problematical  acquisition  of  contagions,  such  as  smallpox, 
diphtheria,  measles,  tuberculosis,  and  other  communicable  diseases  like  typhoid 
fever.  Our  attention  was  called  in  1  place  to  the  fact  that  tubercle  bacilli  had 
been  isolated  from  the  oil  used  in  screw  machines,  evidently  due  to  the  fact 
that  workmen  spit  into  it  during  its  flow  through  the  machines.  It  was  found 
that  the  "safety  first"  idea  had  spread  the  principles  of  "first  aid"  in  preventing 
infections  in  a  number  of  places.  The  only  poisons  encountered  in  machine 
shopping  were  occasional  exposures  to  lead  (in  tempering,  soldering,  in  rich 
lead  alloys  worked  upon),  benzine,  paint  solutions,  and  brass.  Occasionally 
forge  gases  and  potassium  cyanide  tempering  or  case-hardening  were  carried 
on.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism,  and  stimulantism  was  considered 
a  fairly  negligible  factor  in  almost  all  places.  Where  present,  such  was  due  to 
fatigue  factors,  the  absence  of  good  thirst-assuaging  facilities,  and  the  depress- 
ing influence  of  general  insanitary  conditions. 

The  general  appearance  from  a  health  point  of  view  of  the  mass  of  workers 
in  this  process  was  good  in  43  places,  fair  in  8  more,  and  not  good  in  the  remain- 
ing 5  —  the  latter  including  some  large  places  where  a  poor  class  of  help  and 
females  were  employed.  The  complaints  which  workers  made  were  localized 
to  certain  insanitary  conditions  in  their  own  plants.  Our  investigators  came 
across  2  cases  of  open  consumption,  and  here  and  there  skin  afflictions,  such 
as  "brass  rash"  and  certain  numbers  of  pale,  anemic  and  unhealthy  looking 
workers.  Comments.  —  The  reduction  of  certain  monotonous  and  hurrying 
piece-work  operations  for  workers  in  some  plants,  and  attention  to  general 
sanitary  and  hygienic  features  are  the  suggestions  offered.  The  more  general 
use  of  goggles,  gloves,  cotton  in  the  ears  for  noise,  and  first-aid  equipment  is 
needed  in  many  places.  Obviously,  the  presence  of  other  noxious  processes 
should  be  separated  from  that  of  machine  shopping. 

Boiler  Making  is  a  procedure  in  which  at  least  two  hazards  were  found 
to  exist :  excessive  noise  of  a  reverberating  character,  producing  in  practically 
all  workers  deafness  usually  of  considerable  extent ;  and  heat,  where  workers 
were  in  confined  spaces  during  the  process  of  hot  riveting. 

Riveting  is  a  process  in  which  excessive  noise  is  produced,  which  is  con- 
siderably worse  if  in  confined  quarters.  Workers  who  handle  pneumatic 
riveters  have  the  same  hazard  to  the  muscular  and  nervous  systems  as  do  all 
workers  using  these  vibrating  types  of  tools.  "Occupational  neurosis"  is  the 
term  applied  to  the  condition  which  develops. 

TEMPERING. 

The  process  of  tempering,  that  is,  hardening  of  metals  and  metal  surfaces, 
was  found  to  be  carried  out  by  several  methods :  simply  heating  and  cooling, 
or  heating  and  dipping  ihto  water  or  brine,  or  dipping  into  hot  baths  of  lead, 
oil  or  potassium  cyanide,  or  sprinkling  on  potassium  cyanide  and  heating  in  an 
oven.     Case  hardening  was  done  chiefly  with  potassium  cyanide. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  31  establishments  in  9  cities,  and  employed 
a  total  of  326  wage-earners,  all  males.     It  was  found  to  be  used  in  connection 


148 

with  the  following  industries :  Cutlery  and  Tools ;  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop 
Products ;  Springs ;  Automobiles  and  Parts ;  Bolts ;  Nuts  ;  etc. ;  Electrical  Ap- 
paratus; Files;  Sewing  Machines;  Bicycles  and  Parts;  Iron  and  Steel  Mills; 
Stamps  and  Stencils;  and  Cash  Registers. 

Tempering  was  usually  done  in  connection  with  the  blacksmithing  and 
forging  quarters,  but,  occasionally,  elsewhere.  It  required  expert  men  for 
some  purposes,  while  a  considerable  .number  of  ignorant  foreigners  were  en- 
gaged at  it  for  other  purposes.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  hoods  with 
vents  (and  sometimes  air  blasts  and  fans'  to  blow  back  heat  and  fumes)  were 
found  efficient  in  5  places,  fairly  so  in  8  more,  and  absent  in  18  (in  a  few  of 
which  but  little  tempering  was  done).     Some  instructions  concerning  avoidance 


Fig.  43.     Blacksmithing  and  Tempering. 

Note   ventilating   hoods   and   stacks   over    furnaces.      The   stove-like   furnace   to 
the  left  is  where  tempering  is  done  in  molten  lead  or  potassium  cyanide. 


of  poisoning  were  given  in  4  places,  but  in  the  majority  of  places,  where  the 
most  deadly  poison  was  used  (potassium  cyanide),  ignorant  workmen  were 
employed  in  handling  it.  In  7  of  the  places  visited  the  workers  had  the 
privilege  of  sick  benefit  associations.  In  9  of  the  31  places,  other  processes  were 
conducted  in  the  same  quarters  with  tempering  (Forging,  Machine  Shopping, 
Metal  Grinding,  Pickling,  etc.).  Age  group  estimations  showed  3  over  50; 
75  between  40  and  50;  228  between  20  and  40;  and  15  under  20  years  of  age. 
The  hazards  of  dust,  dirt,  dampness,  poor  light,  heat,  cold,  infections  and 
industrial  stiumulantism  were  practically  the  same  as  for  Forging  and  Black- 
smithing.  The  fatigue  factor  appeared  to  be  somewhat  less.  In  a  few  places 
one  cause  was  hurrying  piece-work,  along  with  monotonous  application.  In 
some  instances  the  work  was  very  sedentary.     Noise  from  air  blasts  and  other 


149 

processes  was  also  noted.  The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  2  places, 
8  to  9  hours  in  4  places,  and  9  to  10  hours  in  the  remaining  25.  The  noon 
recess  was  j4  hour  in  2  places,  and  ^  hour  in  the  remaining  29.  Overtime  was 
seldom  called  for.  Poisoning  was  found  to  be  a  great  hazard  in  this  process.  In 
15  of  the  plants  there  was  a  liability  to  lead  poisoning,  and  in  nearly  the  same 
number  to  acute  and  chronic  poisoning  from  potassium  cyanide.  Both  of  these 
were  dangerous  in  the  form  of  handling,  and  hot  fumes.  It  was  very  common 
to  see  large  pieces  of  potassium  cyanide  lying  on  the  edge  of  melting  pots,  or 
nearby,  where  it  was  handled  by  working  men  of  the  most  ignorant  class,  often 
unable  to  speak  English.  Other  poisons  encountered  were  sulphuric  acid,  and 
the  decomposition  products  of  hot  oil,  as  well  as  escaping  furnace  fumes. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  19  places,  fair  in  8  more, 
while  most  were  sickly  looking  in  the  remaining  4.  The  complaints  of  workers 
were  the  metallic  and  oil  fumes,  heat  exposure  and  drafts.  In  8  plants  our 
investigators  found  13  instances  of  industrial  disease,  as  follows:  lead  poison- 
ing, 12  (7  positive  and  5  tentative)  ;  dermatitis  from  potassium  cyanide,  1.  In 
another  instance  a  peculiar  death  was  called  to  our  attention  which  may  have 
been  due  to  potassium  cyanide. 

Comments.  —  As  potassium  cyanide  is  the  most  deadly  poison  used  indus- 
trially, and  as  the  form  in  which  it  is  used  is  the  straight  chemical  compound 
itself,  none  but  well  instructed  workers  should  be  employed  in  its  use.  All 
pieces  of  it  should  be  kept  securely  locked  up,  while  melting  pots  should  be 
well  hooded  and  the  fumes  carried  to  the  exterior.  The  same  precautions 
should  be  taken  concerning  lead  as  described  elsewhere.  The  workers  in  many 
places  should  also  be  protected  from  heat  by  such  means  as  screens,  asbestos 
shields,  air  blasts,  dark  goggles,  and,  as  for  all  hot-process  workers,  shower 
bath  provisions.  Gloves  should  be  furnished  and  their  wearing  insisted  upon. 
In  only  2  plants  were  anything  like  sufficient  precautions  taken  against  poison- 
ing by  lead,  or  potassium  cyanide.  The  use  of  patented  substances  to  replace 
potassium  cyanide  and  claimed  not  to  be  poisonous  has  been  called  into  question 
by  chemists  in  the  case  of  one  of  them  at  least.  It  is  declared  that  this  sub- 
stance broke  up  and  yielded  the  poisonous  cyanide  radical  when  melted  for  use. 

BRAZING. 

Brazing  consists  in  the  heating  of  two  metallic  objects  in  contact  until  they 
fuse,  usually  with  the  aid  of  a  hard  solder,  which  contains  the  elements  of 
brass.  It  is  usually  done  in  forges,  or  at  benches  by  means  of  a  blowpipe  or 
blast.     It  is  adaptable  especially  to  non-ferrous  metals. 

Our  investigations  covered  the  process  in  4  establishments,  in  3  cities, 
representing  53  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  work  is  more  or  less  skilled. 
There  were  no  unions.  There  were  also  no  appliances  to  remove  fumes  from 
the  vicinity  of  the  workers.  In  1  place  goggles  were  furnished,  and  the  workers 
were  also  privileged  members  of  a  benefit  association.  The  workday  was  10 
hours  in  all  places,  with  ^2  hour  noon  recess,  except  in  1  place,  where  1  hour 
was  allowed.  In  2  places  the  work  was  done-  in  very  poorly  ventilated  quarters, 
while  in  3  places  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters.  There 
were  a  total  of  10  workers  over  40  years  and  3  under  20,  leaving  the  balance 
(40)   between  20  and  40  years. 

The  chief  hazard  was  found  to  be  the  fumes  which  arose  during  the 
process,  and  were  composed  very  largely  of  zinc,  mixed  with   fuel  gas.     In  3 


I50 

places,  7  workers  were  found  who  were  subject,  off  and  on,  to  "brass  chills" 
or  "braziers'  disease."  In  1  case  a  grinder  in  a  neighboring  room  also  suffered 
similarly.  The  condition  was  said  to  be  much  worse  in  the  winter.  In  addition 
to  this  hazard,  the  general  ventilation  of  quarters  was  bad,  the  Heat  was  rather 
oppressive,  while  no  particular  precautions  were  taken  against  any  of  the  fea- 
tures which  tend  to  promote  communicable  diseases.  Because  of  the  peculiar 
drying  and  irritating  effect  of  these  fumes  upon  the  throat,  there  was  great 
inducement  to  industrial  alcoholism  among  workers  so  employed. 

Comments.  —  With  few  exceptions  all  brazing  stands  should  be  carefully 
hooded  and  a  good  draft  provided  to  remove  zinc  oxide,  and  other  metallic 
fumes  and  gas,  as  they  escape. 

WELDING. 

The  processes  included  here  are  those  of  acetylene,  oxyhydrogen,  and 
electric  welding.  A  brief  intervaled  contact,  such  as  one  sees  in  the  working 
upon  street  car  rails,  was  the  nature  of  the  electric  process  occasionally  ob- 
served. Usually,  however,  the  low  voltage  and  high  amperage  welding  were 
the  processes  seen.  The  other  forms  were  less  brilliant,  but  apt  to  be  more 
prolonged.  Welding  was  investigated  in  18  establinshments  in  7  cities,  and 
employed  159  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  industries  concerned  were  Coffins 
and  Burial  Cases ;  Copper,  Tin  and  Sheet  Iron  Goods ;  Automobiles  and  Parts ; 
Iron  and  Steel  Forgings ;  Stoves  and  Furnaces ;  Toys  and  Games ;  Cutlery  and 
Tools;  Scientific  Instruments;  Cars;  Iron  and  Steel  Rolling  Mills;  and  Safes 
and  Vaults. 

More  or  less  skilled  hands  were  employed  in  11  places,  but  ordinary  labor 
in  the  remaining.  Such  work  was  done  only  at  intervals  in  a  number  of  places. 
In  some  6  places,  the  workers  were,  clearly,  difficult  to  keep  at  the  process. 
There  were  no  union  organizations.  In  2  places  the  workers  had  sick  benefit 
privileges.  Appliances  consisting  of  shields  to  protect  the  eyes  were  good  in 
3  places,  and  fair  in  4  more,  while  in  the  remaining  11,  in  which  the  brilliancy 
of  light  was  not  quite  so  great,  such  protective  appliances  were  not  worn. 
Welding  was  usually  performed  in  a  room  by  itself,  but  in  5  places  it  was  done 
in  connection  with  Machine  Shopping,  Forging,  Tinsmithing,  and  Metal  Grind- 
ing. The  age  group  estimations  were  as  follows :  over  50  years,  "2 ;  between 
45  and  50  years,  2 ;  from  20  to  40  years,  155. 

The  chief  hazard  of  this  process  was  the  exposure  to  the  light,  and,  in  the 
case  of  high  voltage  electric  welding,  at  least,  to  the  effect  of  actinic  rays.  The 
dazzling  brilliancy  of  the  light  (said  to  reach  8,000  candle  power  and  a  tem- 
perature of  7,000°  F.)  was  rendered  even  more  harmful  by  the  fact  that  it  was 
performed  in  poorly  lighted  quarters  in  a  number  of  places.  The  light  was 
found  to  be  not  only  a  hazard  to  the  eyes,  but  also  to  the  skin,  even  beneath 
the  clothing.  In  2  places  workers  were  found  suffering  from  conjunctivitis. 
Others  complained  of  inability  to  read  at  nights,  headaches,  sore  eyes,  weak 
eyes,  of  the  breathing  of  fumes,  and  the  showers  of  sparks  produced,  while 
hearsay  cases  of  ophthalmia  electrica  were  brought  to  our  notice.  This  is  a 
condition  in  which,  after  a  brief  exposure,  the  eyes  later  become  greatly  in- 
flamed and  swollen,  and  exceedingly  painful,  the  condition  lasting  from  a  few 
hours  to  several  days.  The  extent  of  permanent  damage  to  the  sight  and  color 
sense  is  not  fully  known,  but  permanent  weakness  and  cataract  has  followed. 
The  rays,  particularly  from  high  potential  electric  welding,  also  produce  "sun- 


151 

burning"  of  the  skin.  This  was  a  feature  complained  of  in  5  instances.  Being 
similar  to  the  X-Ray,  there  is  danger  of  a  subsequent  formation  of  cancer, 
as  well  as  the  production  of  sterility  in  workers  so  exposed. 

In  7  places  workers  were  found  to  be  employed  at  piece-work.  In  4 
places  there  was  danger  also  of  poisoning,  especially  from  lead  and  brass 
alloys,  upon  which  the  work  was  being  done. 

Comments.  —  All  persons  with  weak  eyes  should  avoid  this  process.  An 
oculist  should  see  all  employes  before  they  are  engaged.  All  such  workers 
should  be  provided  with  protection  to  the  eyes,  both  against  sparks  and  for  the 
light.  While  in  some  forms  of  the  process  the  amount  of  light  produced  can 
.  be  easily  borne,  its  alternate  flashing  and  disappearing  is  damaging  to  the 
human  eye.  In  a  number  of  places,  complete  helmets  or  head  shields,  equipped 
with  layers  of  red  and  blue  glass  in  front  of  the  eyes,  were  provided.  These 
should  have  been  used  in  some  other  places  where  only  common  dark  glasses 
were  provided.  For  the  actinic  and  X-Rays  produced,  the  worker  should  wear 
gloves,  and  at  least  heavy  leather  aprons,  if  not  some  form  of  lead  foil  incorpo- 
rated in  special  cloth.  Some  forms  of  glass  (Euphos  and  Hallaner  glass)  are 
said  to  absorb  electric  and  actinic  rays.  Where  fume  is  produced,  suction  fans, 
hoods  and  other  exhausts  are  necessary. 

SOLDERING. 

Soldering  may  be  done  by  hand,  or  by  machinery,  the  latter  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  manufacture  of  tin  cans  or  the  sealing  of  the  same  in 
canning  factories.  In  this  place  we  have  also  included  LEAD  BURNING, 
as  such  work  is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  soldering  (see  also  Storage 
Batteries).  Solder  contains  from  30  to  60  per  cent  of  lead.  (For  hard  solder- 
ing see  "Brazing".) 

The  industries  in  which  soldering  was  investigated  were  as  follows :  Cop- 
per and  Tin  Goods,  6;  Electrical  Apparatus,  7;  Stoves  and  Furnaces,  4;  Paint 
Manufacturing  (making  tin  cans),  3;  Automobiles  and  Parts,  3;  Instruments,  2; 
and  1  each  of  the  following :  Brass  Goods ;  Cars ;  Coffins ;  Art  Glass ;  Oil 
Refining;  Shipbuilding;  Advertising  Novelties;  Machine  Shop  Products;  Rub- 
ber; and  Chemical  Manufacturing.  There  were  a  total  of  35  establishments  in 
10  cities  investigated,  employing  749  employes,  of  whom  584  were  males  and  165 
were  females. 

A  union  organization  existed  in  1  establishment.  The  employer's  interest 
in  workers'  welfare  appeared  good  in  29  establishments,  and  fair  in  the  remain- 
ing 6.  An  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  engaged  in  27  establishments, 
while  in  the  remaining  8  a  large  percentage  of  ignorant  foreigners  were 
employed  at  the  work.  Workers  appeared  to  remain  well  at  the  work  in 
at  least  27  places.  Health  appliances,  consisting  principally  of  hoods  and 
exhausts,  or  blow  fans  to  remove  solder  fumes  and  gas  fumes  from  the 
vicinity  of  the  workers,  appeared  good  in  2  places,  of  fair  efficiency  in  12  more, 
but  absent  in  the  remaining  21.  In  4  places  some  organized  instruction  was 
being  given  in  health  conservation.  In  6  places  workers  had  the  privileges  of 
factory  benefit  associations.  In  19  plants  the  work  was  practically  all  unskilled, 
and  in  some  of  these  machines  performed  the  actual  process.  Workrooms  were 
hygienically  constructed  in  16  places,  fairly  so  in  11  more,  and  not  so  in  the 
remaining  8.     There  was  an   estimated  total  of   10   persons   over  50  years,  20 


152 

between  45  and  50  years,  74  from  40  to  45  years,  610  between  20  and  40  years, 
and  41  under  20  j^ears.  In  14  places  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the 
same  premises,  such  as  Machine  Shopping,  Polishing,  Welding,  and  Factory 
Processes. 

In  2  places  dust  was  a  bad  feature,  due  to  the  presence  of  other  processes, 
and  the  same  was  true  to  a  less  extent  in  7  more.  Such  dust  helped  to  spread 
solder-dust  accumulations.  Quarters  were  clean  and  orderly  in  21  places,  fairly 
so  in  10  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  4.  Natural  light  was  bad  in  2  places 
and  only  fair  in  4  more,  while  the  same  faults  were  to  be  found  with  artificial 
lighting,  as  discussed  elsewhere.  (See  Machine  Shopping.)  General  room 
ventilation  was  good  in  9  places,  fair  in  12  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  14, 
due  to  close,  stuffy  quarters  in  which  the  air  had  no  movement;  to  devitalizing 
of  the  air  through  the  presence  of  gas  flames,  used  in  heating  the  solder;  and 
to  the  contamination  of  the  air  with  the  products  of  gas  fumes,  solder  fumes, 
smoke  and  acid  fumes.  In  10  places  heat  from  the  process  was"  some  hazard 
to  health,  due  largeh-  to  the  absence  of  hoods,  protective  devices,  or  air  blasts 
to  direct  it  awaj'  from  the  workers.  The  process  of  soldering  is  not  particularly 
fatiguing  in  itself,  but,  in  a  number  of  hand-work  methods,  hurrying  piece-work, 
speeding  up,  monotonous  application  at  similar  movements,  and  constant  strain, 
mvolving  also  the  eyes,  were  features,  particularly  as  a  fairly  large  number 
of  youthful  persons  were  so  engaged.  The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours 
in  1  place,  8  to  9  hours  in  12  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  20  places ;  while  in  1  place, 
employing  2  men,  it  was  11  hours  per  da}-,  and  13  hours  at  night.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  7  places,  ^  hour  in  4  places,  J^  hour  in  23  places,  and 
"as  desired"  in  the  remaining  1.  Where  there  was  no  night  shift  work,  there 
was  apt  to  be  a  little  overtime.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  coininumcable 
diseases  appeared  negligible  in  6  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  16  more,  but  a  con- 
siderable hazard  in  the  remaining  13.  The  chief  reasons  for  such  hazards 
were  spitting  upon  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  washing  places, 
the  use  of  common  towels  and  drinking  cups,  poor  closets,  and  the  lack  of 
medical  supervision.  The  chief  hazard  in  soldering  is  tha.t  of  poisoning,  due  to 
lead  (handled,  in  the  shape  of  fumes,  or  as  fine  dust  accumulations)  ;  acids, 
such  as  hydrochloric,  and  acetic  (chiefly  as  hot  vapors)  ;  and  zinc  chloride 
fumes,  resulting  from  work  upon  zinc  alloA'S  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  a  hot 
soldering  iron.  Near-sighted  persons,  and  others,  through  habit,  often  kept 
their  faces  dangerouslj-  close  to  the  fumes  arising  during  hand-soldering.  Occa- 
sionally wood  alcohol  was  also  used.  With  machine  soldering  the  hazards  of 
poisoning  were  somewhat  less,  although  the  extra  quantity  of  fumes  present 
increased  the  danger  unless  ventilation  about  the  machines  was  very  good. 
In  5  places,  employing  70  persons,  the  risks  of  poisoning  appeared  negligible ; 
in  15  more  there  was  considerable  hazard,  Avhile  in  the  remaining  15  it  was 
bad.  Inadequate  washing  facilities  and  eating  at  the  work  benches  or  around 
the  machines  were  decided  factors,  in  addition  to  the  methods  of  working. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  stiniulantism  was  about  in  proportion  to  the 
effects  of  the  poisons,  since  the  other  hazards  were  not  considerable.  Added  to 
this  was  the  frequent  inadequacy  of  drinking  water  facilities  in  a  number  of 
places. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  averaged  good  in  21  places,  fair  in 
10  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  4,  although  here  and  there  a  pale  or  sickly 
looking  worker  was   found   in   nearly  all   place?.     The  chief   complaints  of  the 


153 

workers  were  the  obvious  danger  from  breathing  lead  fumes,  the  effects  of 
acid  and  other  fumes  upon  the  nose,  eyes,  and  throat,  the  poor  ventilation  of 
work  quarters,  and  the  danger  of  getting  foreign  bodies  in  the  eyes.  Personal 
complaints  were  sore  nose,  sore  throat,  pains  in  the  chest,  nausea,  loss  of 
appetite,  coughing  and  headaches,  in  addition  to  various  digestive  and  nervous 
disorders  which  were  often  clearly  due  to  slow  lead  poisoning.  In  12  places 
our  investigators  reported  the  following  instances  of  occupational  diseases: 
lead  poisoning,  positive,  6;  tentative,  4;  partially  recovered  from,  3;  a  number 
of  hearsay  cases  were  reported;  in  addition  there  were  cases  of  tuberculosis, 
which  the  fumes  appeared  to  activate. 

Comments.  —  None  but  healthy  workers,  who  have  passed  nose,  throat, 
eyes  and  chest  examination  should  be  employed  as  hand-solderers ;  work  should 
be  so  arranged  that  either  the  worker  is  not  continually  bent  over  the  soldering 
iron,  or  a  local  flexible  exhaust  arrangement  is  provided  to  remove  fumes. 
Particularly  is  this  so  where  workers  have  to  enter  confined  spaces,  as  installing 
refrigerators  in  cars,  etc.  Needless  to  say  that  in  all  rooms  in  which  gas 
flames  are  burning  constantly,  extra  efforts  towards  renewing  the  air,  and 
especially  towards  keeping  it  in  motion  should  be  made.  Placards  warning 
employes  upon  how  to  prevent  lead  poisoning  should  be  posted  ^,  while 
in  certain  sub-processes,  workers  should  be  examined  periodically  for  evidences 
of  lead  poisoning,  when,  if  found  present,  they  should  be  put  at  some  other 
work  for  a  time.  —  There  is  also  danger  of  arsenic  poisoning  wherever  acids 
are  used  upon  metals  (the  arsenic  being  present  in  both  the  crude  acids  used 
and  in  the  metals).  Symptoms  are  apt  to  come  on  hours  after  breathing  the 
fumes  with  difficulty  in  breathing  leading  to  pneumonia-like  signs,  pains  in  the 
abdomen,  passing  of  blood  in  the  urine,  onset  of  jaundice  and  finally  death 
perhaps  after  several  days.     (Arsine  is  the  poison  inhaled.) 

PICKLING. 

"Pickling"  is  a  process  to  remove  the  "scale"  to  which  sheet  iron,  black 
plate,  etc.,  is  subjected  in  preparation  for  galvanizing  or  tinning.  It  is  prac- 
tically always  done  with  the  aid  of  machinery,  which  dips  the  sheets  up  and 
down  in  the  pickling  solutions,  the  sheets  standing  on  edge  in  the  racks  of  a 
cradle.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  workers  to  place  the  sheets  in  the  cradle,  move 
or  revolve  the  cradle  from  one  vat  to  the  other,  and  to  take  the  sheets  out 
when  finished.  In  the  case  of  pipes  and  other  articles  the  mechanical  process. 
of  course,  differs  somewhat.  The  solutions  used  are  usually  a  double  acid  bath, 
"black  pickle"  and  "white  pickle,"  in  which  sulphuric  acid,  in  comparatively 
weak  solution  in  hot  water  is  used,  or  hydrochloric  acid  may  be  used  in  cold 
water.  Thereafter  the  pickled  material  is  rinsed  in  running  water,  or  in  alkali 
water  and  then  plain  water. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  16  establishments,  in  12  cities,  and  in  the 
following  industries:  Iron  and  Steel  Mills;  Tinning;  Galvanizing;  Auto- 
mobiles; Wire;  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products;  Signs  and  Advertising 
Novelties.  There  were  a  total  of  180  wage-earners  employed,  all  males.  In  but 
1  small  place  was  the  process  done  by  hand.  As  a  rule,  but  a  comparatively  few 
men  were  required  to  perform  this  work,  even  in  large  establishments.  In 
the  places  investigated,  the  attitude  toward  employes  seemed  very  good  in  10 
places,   fair  in  5  more,   and  bad  in   1.     The  type  of  workers  was  good   in   6 


154 

places,  fair  in  4,  and  largely  ignorant  foreigners  in  the  remaining  6.  The  men 
appeared  to  remain  fairly  well  at  the  work  in  14  of  the  16  places.  In  3  places 
health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  covering  the  pickling  vats,  were  good; 
in  2  places  they  seemed  fairly  efhcient,  in  1  place,  bad,  while  in  the  remaining 
10  they  were  entirely  absent.  Some  instructions  were  given  concerning  em- 
ployes' health  in  1  place,  and  in  4  places  sick  benefit  associations  existed.  The 
work  quarters  were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  4 
more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  Other  processes  were  present  in  6  places, 
usually  Galvanizing,  but  in  large  mills  various  kinds  of  work  were  done  in 
the  same  premises.  Age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  50 
years,  3 ;  between  40  and  50  years,  14 ;  and  between  20  and  40  years,  163. 

Dampness  was  a  considerable  hazard  in  5  places,  and  to  some  extent  in 
8  more,  due  to  the  splashing  of  floors  from  the  process  and  the  absence  of 
good  drainage.  In  4  places  light  was  very  poor  and  in  2  others  it  should  have 
been  much  better.  The  ventilation  of  quarters  was  not  good  in  half  of  the 
places.  In  4  places  exposure  to  heat  was  a  hazard,  and  particularly  so  in  1. 
There  was  also  some  risk,  from  cold  drafts,  combined  with  working  in  a  humid 
and  steamy  atmosphere.  For  the  type  of  men  employed  the  work  itself  was  not 
fatiguing,  although  considerable  lifting,  constant  standing,  monotony,  and  hurry- 
ing piece-work,  combined  with  evidences  of  "speeding  up,"  were  present.  In 
addition,  hours  were  uncommonly  long  in  some  places.  The  workday  was 
found  to  be  under  9  hours  in  2  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  7  places,  and  from  11 
to  12  hours  in  the  remaining  7.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  5  places,  % 
hour  in  2  places,  ^  hour  in  8  places,  and  "as  desired"  in  1.  Night  shifts  were 
the  rule  in  some  of  the  places.  There  was  some  risk  of  contracting  com- 
municable diseases  in  all  except,  possibly,  one  place,  due  to  the  use  of  common 
drinking  cups,  absence  or  inadequacy  of  washing  facilities,  crude  sanitary  con- 
veniences, frequent  injuries  and  cuts,  short-intervaled  handling  of  materials 
by  different  workers,  etc.  While  few  precautions  were  observed  as  to  spitting, 
the  floors  were  usually  wet,  and  dust  was  not  a  feature.  The  liability  to 
poisoning  lay  in  the  effects  of  acid  fumes  and  in  one  or  two  instances,  alkali 
vapors,  as  well  as  hot  cyanid  solutions  in  adjacent  electroplating  processes. 
While  sulphuric  acid  itself  is  not  volatile,  steam  particles  easily  carry  it.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  the  alkali  solutions.  The  effects  of  such  poisonings  are 
local  upon  the  nose,  throat  and  digestion,  and  especially  upon  the  teeth ;  as  the 
fumes  also  incite  coughing,  they  are  very  predisposing  to  lung  diseases.  The 
solutions  are  usually  not  strong  enough  to  affect  the  skin  or  eyes,  except  in  the 
case  of  overly  susceptible  persons.  The  inducement  to  industrial  alcoholism 
depends,  first,  upon  the  amount  of  nausea  or  gastritis  which  the  breathing  of  the 
fumes  may  produce;  second,  upon  the  depressing  influences  of  long  hours,  lack 
of  good  drinking  facilities,  and  washing  facilities.  The  workers  perspire  very 
freely.     The  work  is  sloppy  and  steamy. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  6  places,  fair  in  9 
others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  1.  Their  chief  complaints  (although  a  com- 
paratively few  complained  at  all)  were  irritation  of  the  nose  and  throat,  cough- 
ing, heat,  fatigue,  and  breathing  of  sal  ammoniac  fumes  from  nearby  galvanizing 
processes.  Our  investigators  found  a  considerable  number  of  workers  with 
very  bad  teeth,  as  well  as  pyorrhea,  the  effects,  unquestionably,  of  the  small  but 
constant  amount  of  acid  vapors  which  they  breath. 

Comments.  —  In  1  place  the  employer  remarked  that  "the  men  get  fat  on 
it,"  but  all  who  were  seen  were  sickly  looking,  while  the  Tuberculosis  Depart- 


155 

ment  in  that  city  had  notified  us  of  a  case  of  consumption  which  had  come 
from  the  pickling  room  of  this  plant.  In  addition  to  hoods  and  stacks  to  draw 
off  fumes,  or  drop-partitions  around  pickling  vats,  workers  should  be  supplied 
with  every  convenience  to  keep  dry,  and  to  enable  them  to  go  home  properly 
clothed,  such  as  rubbed  boots  and  aprons  while  at  work,  and  locker  rooms, 
shower  bath  quarters,  etc.,  for  bathing  and  changing  purposes  at  quitting  time. 
—  See  Comments  on  arsenic  poisoning  under  "Soldering,"  whenever  acids  are 
allowed  to  act  on  metals. 

GALVANIZING. 

Galvanizing  consists  in  the  dipping  of  previously  "pickled"  sheet,  pipes,  or 
other  metal  ware  (iron  or  steel)  into  baths  of  molten  zinc,  in  order  to  give 
them  a  very  thin  coating  of  this  metal.  The  process  is  usually  done  with 
mechanical  cradles,  or  other  forms  of  conveyors,  but  small  pieces  may  be 
handled  by  hand. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  16  establishments.  Our  report  covers  14 
establishments,  located  in  11  cities,  employing  a  total  of  724  wage-earners,  all 
males.  In  a  few  instances  in  the  state.  Galvanizing  is  done  as  an  independent 
business,  but  the  vast  amount  of  the  work  is  turned  out  of  Iron  and  Steel 
Rolling  Mills.     The  process  was  very  similar  in  all  of  the  mills  investigated. 

The  employers'  interest  in  workers'  welfare  was  very  good  in  11  places, 
while  in  only  1  did  it  seem  to  be  quite  lacking.  The  general  type  of  workers 
was  good  in  8  places,  fair  in  3,  and  poor  in  3.  In  11  places  the  workers  were 
very  well  retained,  while  in  but  2  places,  employing  a  total  of  less  than  20 
men,  were  they  of  an  unsteady  character.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of 
hoods  with  stacks  or  other  arrangements  to  draw  off  zinc  and  other  fumes, 
were  found  present  in  7  places,  in  4  of  which  they  were  only  partly  efficient,  but 
in  the  remaining  7  they  were  entirely  absent.  In  5  places  instructions  along 
lines  of  health  conservation  were  given  to  workers,  and  in  an  organized  way  in 
3  places.  In  5  places  workers  had  the  privileges  of  sick  benefit  associations. 
The  work  quarters  were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in 
2  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  2,  the  latter  employing  a  total  of  32 
workers.  Other  processes  found  present  in  half  of  the  places  were :  Pickling, 
Acid  Dipping,  and  some  Machine  Shop  Work.  Age-group  estimations  summed 
up  as  follows  :  % 

No.  of 
Age  Groups.  "  Wage-earners. 

Over    50   years 2 

45   to   50    "     4 

40   to   45    "     57 

20  to  40    " 661 

The  damp  character  of  the  work  was  a  hazard  in  9  places,  particularly  in  1, 
due  to  the  proximity  of  the  pickling  process.  The  ventilation  of  quarters  was 
good  in  2  places,  fair  in  7,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  5,  due  to  contamination 
with  various  fumes.  The  heat  from  the  process  was  some  hazard  in  8  places, 
particularly  in  1,  while  exposure  to  cold  drafts  when  leaving  the  vicinity  of 
the  galvanizing  furnaces,  and  vats  was  another  risk  which  a  majority  of  the 
workers  ran.  The  work  may  be  more  or  less  fatiguing.  In  this  respect  investi- 
gators commented  upon  the  following  features,  arranged  in  descending  order : 


156 

long  hours,  hurrying  piece-work,  monotonous  application,  constant  standing, 
and,  in  one  or  two  instances,  loud  noises  as  well  as  laborious  work.  In  mosl 
places  there  was  some  opportunity  of  work  variation.  The  workday  was  found 
to  be  8  hours  in  1  place,  8J  in  1  place,  9  to  10  hours  in  5  places,  10  to  11  in  3 
places,  and  11  to  12  in  4  places,  while  night  shifts  were  the  rule  in  7  of  the  places 
investigated.  In  6  of  these  latter,  two  shifts  made  up  the  twenty-four  hours,  and 
in  the  remaining  one,  three  8-hour  shifts  were  engaged.  The  noon  recess  was  1 
hour  in  2  places,  ^  hour  in  7  places,  while  with  night  shifts  in  the  other  places,  it 
varied  from  "as  desired"  to  J  hour.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  com- 
municable diseases  had  the  usual  hazards  as  mentioned  under  Pickling,  although 
they  were  rather  less  present  in  the  places  in  which  galvanizing  was  seen.  The 
chief  hazard  in  the  process  is  poisoning,  which  may  be  due  to  zinc  fumes  (less 
marked  than  in  brass  founding)  ;  lead  (a  small  amount  of  which  is  usually 
added  to  the  zinc  bath)  ;  to  sal  ammoniac  (used  to  keep  the  zinc  from  burning)  ; 
and  to  the  fumes  from  the  pickling  processes,  if  located  nearby.  There  was 
little  risk  of  acute  or  sudden  poisoning  from  any  of  these.  The  risk  of  slow 
poisoning  was  considered  negligible  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but  con- 
siderable in  the  remaining  6.  The  forms  of  poisoning  which  may  be  present 
are:  "zinc  chills",  chronic  lead  poisoning  (except  to  the  person  who  handles 
lead  this  risk  is  only  nominal),  catarrhal  trouble,  due  to  the  sal  ammoniac 
fumes,  and  carious  teeth  as  well  as  pyorrhea,  as  noted  among  the  "picklers". 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  is  about  in  proportion  to  the  exposure 
to  fumes,  to  which  should  be  added  the  depressing  effects  of  fatigue,  long  hours, 
lack  of  washing  facilities,  and  good  drinking  water  properly  supplied. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  6  places,  and  fair  in  the 
remaining.  There  were  not  many  complaints  made  by  workmen  (few  could 
speak  English),  but  these  consisted  of  the  irritating  effects  of  the  fumes,  as 
well  as  of  "metal  chills".  The  investigators  reported  specific  occupational  com- 
plaints, as  follows  :  3  with  burns,  2  who  mentioned  "zinc  chills",  and  1  in  whom 
the  breathing  of  the  fumes  had  produced  chronic  bronchitis.  In  addition,  skin 
irritations  and  ulcers  were  brought  to  notice.  Foremen  in  a  number  of  places 
spoke  of  "chills",  if  the  zinc  got  too  hot. 

Comments.  —  As  stated  above,  only  half  of  the  places  were  supplied  with 
hoods  and  arrangements  to  remove  the  fumes.  While  an  endeavor  is  made  in 
all  places  to  keep  temperature  down,  so  that  the  zinc  does  not  burn  up,  there 
is  some  escape  from  this  in  most  places  at  different  times  of  the  day.  The 
white  fumes  of  sal  ammoniac  are  constantly  present.  Workers  should  also  be 
supplied  with  proper  gloves,  aprons,  and  footwear  to  protect  them  from  burns 
and  other  mishaps.  In  some  places  they  were  found  equipped  with  old  gunny- 
sacks  for  aprons.  Where  lead  is  used,  workers  should  be  examined  at  intervals 
for  any  evidence  of  slow  lead  poisoning.  Being  hot  work,  change  rooms, 
shower  baths  and  lockers  should  be  provided.  —  See,  also,  comment  upon  arsenic 
poisoning  under  "Soldering",  whenever  acids  are  allowed  to  act  on  metals. 

TINNING. 

Tinning  or  tinplating  is  a  process  in  which  a  very  thin  layer  of  tin,  often 
largely  mixed  with  lead,  and  sometimes  zinc,  is  applied  to  sheet  iron,  or  black 
plate,  or  castings.  (In  some  places  it  was  said  no  lead  was  used.)  Terne  plate 
may  contain  up  to  as  high  as  75%  lead.    The  process  varies  in  different  places. 


157 

The  following  is  the  usual  method.  Sheets  from  the  "white  pickle"  are  dipped 
(by  hand  or  machinery)  into  a  flux  of  sal  ammoniac,  hydrochloric  acid  and 
zinc,  then  into  70%  lead  (sometimes  omitted),  then  into  pure  molten  tin  from 
which  they  emerge  under  a  layer  of  palm  oil  or  other  oil.  They  are  next 
polished  and  cleaned  by  hand  or  in  rollers  with  middlings  (bran),  ground 
peanut  shells,  or  sawdust  and  rags.  The  hand  dipping  is  done  by  skilled  men 
who  use  tongs  to  hold  the  sheets. 

Tinning  was  investigated  in  13  plants,  located  in  9  cities,  and  employed  a 
total  of  583  wage-earners  (exclusive  of  "pickling",  etc.),  of  whom  508  were 
males  and  75  were  females.  The  females  were  employed  as  sorters  (and 
occasionally  as  polishers)  to  pick  out  the  "wasters"  after  the  tinning  process 
was  completed.  The  vast  majority  of  workers  were  employed  at  the  process  in 
connection  with  Iron  and  Steel  Rolling  Mills,  where  the  black  plate  was  also 
made  in  preparation  for  tinning. 

A  union  organization  existed  in  1  place  investigated.  The  interest  which 
employers  took  in  the  welfare  of  workers  appeared  to  be  very  good  in  6  places, 
fair  in  5  more,  and  practically  lacking  in  the  remaining  place,  which  also  was  a 
big  employer.  In  8  places  an  intelligent  class  of  workers  was  employed,  in  2 
others  fairly  so,  while  in  the  remaining  2  they  were  largely  ignorant  foreigners. 
The  workers  appeared  to  remain  steadily  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods,  with  vents 
and  sometimes  exhausts  to  draw  the  fumes  off  from  the  tinning  vats,  were 
good  in  3  places,  fair  in  3  more,  but  absent  in  the  remaining  6.  In  1  place 
organized  instruction  along  health  conservation  lines  was  given  :  but  very  little 
attention  was  paid  to  this  in  the  remaining  11.  In  2  places  sick  benefit  associa- 
tions existed.  The  tinning  quarters  were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  5 
places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  4.  In  2  places  other 
processes,  such  as  pickling  and  polishing  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters. 
The  vast  majority  of  workers  were  between  20  and  40  years  of  age,  while  a  few 
were  under  20. 

Dust,  dirt  and  disorderly  surroundings,  dampness  (water,  steam  and 
humidity),  heat  (from  the  process  itself),  exposure  to  cold  (by  drafts  and  hav- 
ing to  go  to  outside  closets),  and  poor  lighting  arrangements  —  all  of  these 
constituted  from  fair  to  bad  hazards  in  from  J  to  J  of  the  places  investigated. 
General  ventilation  was  good  in  3  places,  fair  in  5  more,  btit  poor  in  the  remain- 
ing 4,  due  to  contamination  with  the  fumes  of  oils  and  greases  used,  and 
metals,  as  well  as  to  deoxidation  through  the  presence  of  furnaces  in  confined 
work  quarters,  and  to  the  lack  of  means  of  keeping  the  air  in  circulation.  In 
2  places  steam  was  excessive.  Fatigue  seemed  to  be  a  fair  hazard  in  5  places 
and  considerable  in  the  remaining  7,  the  chief  reasons  being  hurrying  piece-work 
in  monotonous  and  straining  manipulations,  and  less  often  long  hours,  noise,  con- 
stant awkward  positions,  and  occasionally  jarring  work.  The  workday  was 
found  to  be  8  hours  in  1  place,  8  to  9  hours  in  3  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  1  place, 
10  to  11  hours  in  4  places,  and  11  to  12  hours  in  the  remaining  3  places.  Xight 
shifts  were  the  rule  in  several  of  the  large  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1 
hour  in  3  places,  about  f  hour  in  6  places,  and  \  hour  in  the  remaining  3. 
Constant  standing  in  the  case  of  females  while  inspecting,  polishing  and  sort- 
ing sheets  of  tin  was  also  noted.  Eyestrain,  due  to  glancing  of  light  on  the 
polished  sheets  of  tin,  as  the  females  turned  them  over,  was  present.  The 
liability  to  the  contraction  of  comi>iunicable  diseases  seemed  a   fair  hazard  in 


158 

8  places  and  considerable  in  the  remaining  4,  due  to  such  factors  as  promiscuous 
spitting  about  the  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  great  inadequacy  of 
washing  facilities,  and  the  little  attention  paid  to  toilet  arrangements  in  several 
places,  and  occasionally  to  crowding.  There  was  great  liability  to  cuts  and 
burns  of  all  grades  of  severity  with  consequent  pus  infections,  blood  poisoning, 
erysipelas,  etc.  There  was  a  risk  of  infection  from  rags  used  for  polishing 
purposes.  Furthermore,  but  few  of  the  workers  were  under  medical  super- 
vision. Practically  the  only  females  found  employed  in  Iron  and  Steel  Mills 
were  in  this  division  of  the  work.  They  were  very  largely  immigrant  girls. 
The  poisons  used  in  the  tinning  process  were  found  to  be  lead,  zinc,  tin  (there 
is  a  question  as  to  this  last  metal's  being  a  poison),  hydrochloric  acid,  and 
sal-ammoniac  fumes,  in  addition  to  the  escape  of  fumes  and  gases  from  furnaces 
in  some  places.  Some  risk  of  poisoning  existed  in  all  places,  and  particularly 
so  in  6.  Those  who-  handled  lead  directly,  or  terne  plate,  very  rich  in  lead, 
were  the  most  exposed,  but  there  was  some  risk  around  the  pots  from  the 
breathing  of  lead  vapors,  created  by  the  constant  stirring  up  of  the  tin-lead 
alloy,  near  which  the  workers  were  necessarily  closely  stationed.  The  risk  of 
"zinc  chills"  was  also  present.  The  ignorance  of  the  workers,  the  practice  of 
using  palm  oil  to  wash  the  hands  (thus  greatly  favoring  lead  absorption  through 
the  skin),  the  lack  of  instructions  concerning  the  danger  of  lead  poisoning,  the 
lack  of  medical  supervision,  and,  in  several  places,  the  great  inadequacy  of 
washing  facilities,  were  other  important  factors  in  the  risk  of  poisoning.  The 
industrial  inducement  to  stimnlantism  seemed  present  in  practically  all  places 
and  was  influenced  chiefly  by  the  exposure  to  the  poison  factor,  as  well  as  heat, 
long  hours,  poor  washing  facilities,  and  fatigue,  while  the  character  of  the 
drinking  water  supply  was  bad  in  some  places.  In  others,  bubbling  fountains 
were  the  rule. 

In  all  large  places  some  workers  were  seen  who  were  decidedly  under  par 
physically,  but  the  general  average  was  good.  The  complaints  of  the  workers 
were  not  numerous,  but  consisted  of  poor  ventilation,  breathing  of  fumes,  work- 
ing in  steam,  lack  of  heat  in  the  winter  time,  the  loss  of  time  from  various 
forms  of  sickness,  metal  burns,  zinc  chloride  burns,  etc.  Our  investigators  re- 
ported the  following  occupational  disease  cases :  lead  poisoning,  4  positive,  1 
tentative;  lead  and  zinc  poisoning,  3  tentative.  There  were  also  some  hearsay 
cases  of  lead  poisoning.  In  1  place  employing  only  a  few  men,  but  1  worker 
had  remained  for  two  years,  and  he  stated  that  because  of  the  lack  of  ventila- 
tion he  had  seen  200  men  come  and  go  in  that  time.  Undoubtedly  his  state- 
ment was  considerably  overdrawn,  but  there  was  considerable  exposure  at  the 
place.  Comments.  —  Greater  precautions  should  be  taken  in  tining  than  in 
galvanizing  because  of  the  large  percentage  of  lead  which  is  customarily  used. 
By  all  means  should  all  alloy  pots  be  well  hooded  and  vented.  Washing  facili- 
ties should  include  shower  baths  for  those  at  the  hot  work.  We  are  confident 
that  for  a  physician  to  see  each  worker  for  three  to  five  minutes  once  a  month, 
the  gradual  progress  of  slow  lead  poisoning,  which  is  certainly  present  in  a 
good  percentage  of  the  workers,  could  be  prevented. 

ACID   DIPPING. 

Acid  dipping  is  a  process  preliminary  to  electroplating,  in  which  metal 
pieces  are  dipped  into  jars  or  vats  of  acids  (usually  a  strong  mixture  of  the 
inorganic  acids,  HCl,  HNCi,  and  H^SOj),  in  order  to  cleanse  the  surfaces  from 


159 

oxides  and  corrosive  deposits,  and  other  accumulations.  The  process  differs 
from  "pickling",  chiefly  in  that  acid  dipping  is  done  in  cold,  strong  acid  solu- 
tions, and  smaller  objects  are  usually  so  treated,  while  in  "pickling",  hot  solu- 
tions of  weak  acidic  character,  sometimes  with  alkaline  treatments  as  well,  are 
used.  Acid  dipping  is  usually  done  by  hand  or  some  form  of  holder;  pickling, 
by  mechanical  means.  Acid  dipping  is  a  very  rapid  process,  requiring  but  a 
moment  for  a  dip,  while  pickling  takes  from  five  to  twenty  minutes  or  more  in 
each  solution. 

We  here  report  upon  this  process  as  investigated  in  5  establishments,  in  3 
,^cities  where  it  was  found  to  employ  a  total  of  32  workers,  all  males.  There 
was  a  tendency  to  employ  youths  at  the  process,  although  there  were  4  persons 


Fig.  44.     Acid  Dipping  in  Plating  Room. 

Slot    ventilator    along    wall    connected    with    powerful    exhaust.      Note    slatted 

floor  treads.     Aprons  and  gloves  furnished. 


observed  who  were  over  40  y^ars  of  age.  Even  in  the  largest  establishments 
the  process  requires  but  very  few  workers.  It  is  also  more  or  less  discontinuous, 
as  a  rule.  In  the  places  investigated  workers  appeared  to  remain  well  in  most 
instances.  There  were  good  health  appliances  in  3  plants,  but  these  were  absent 
in  the  remaining  2  where  a  total  of  8  men  were  employed.  In  1  place  the  8 
or  10  employes  so  engaged  had  the  privilege  of  a  sick  benefit  association,  and 
their  general  care  was  .well  supervised.  The  work  required  very  little  skill  and 
in  3  places  a  very  ignorant  type  of  workers  was  so  employed.  The  work 
quarters  were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  all  except  1  place.  In  large 
places  the  process  was  by  itself,  while  in  others  it  was  usually  found  in  a 
corner  of  the  plating  room,   or  polishing  and  buffing  rooms. 

The  chief  hazard  is  the  breathing  of  strong,  mineral  acid  vapors,  which 
are  created  by  dipping  metals  into  such  acids.     In  a  number  of  instances  the 


i6o 

vapors  were  clearly  visible  as  the  very  poisonous  brown  vapors  of  nitroso- 
nitric  acid.  In  neutralizing,  vapors  were  also  created  from  alkaline  bath^ 
(NaOH).  In  plating  rooms  there  was  also  the  risk  of  potassium  cyanid  and 
other  poisons  used.  The  liability  to  poisoning,  particularly  from  acid  vapors, 
was  considerable  in  1  place,  and  fairly  so  in  3  others,  due  either  to  the  absence 
of  a  ventilating  hood  having  good  draft,  or  to  the  carelessness  of  the  workers 
in  creating  and  distributing  vapors,  particularly  where  such  were  not  plainly 
visible.  In  one  place  the  work  was  done  in  front  of  an  open  window  where 
the  breeze  drove  the  vapors  directly  towards  the  worker.  Other  hazards  to 
acid  dippers  were  the  dampness  of  quarters,  due  to  the  vats  of  rinsing  water, 
often  splashed  upon  the  floors,  and  the  humidity  from  steam  arising  from  hot 
water  cleansing  baths.  All  workers  were  found  to  be  engaged  from  9  to  10 
hours,  while  in  3  places  the  noon  recess  was  only  J  hour. 

Comments.  —  Acid  dippers  should  be  protected  by  a  good  hood  and  local 
exhausts,  or  other  very  efficient  means  of  confining  the  vapors ;  also  with 
rubber  gloves,  rubber  aprons,  and  perhaps  rubber  boots,  if  the  work  is  of  a 
splashing  character  at  all.,  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  single  exposure 
of  only  a  few  moments  to  breathing  nitroso-nitric  acid  vapors,  may  result  in 
pneumonia  within  24  hours,  or,  later,  to  a  permanent  nervous  affliction,  char- 
acterized by  constant  tremors.  The  situation  is  similar  to  exposures  which 
firemen  suffer  when  carboys  of  acids  are  broken  in  storage  rooms  and  other 
places  during  fires.  In  the  recent  New  York  disaster,  in  which  a  hundred 
persons  or  more  were  exposed  to  breathing  nitric  acid  vapors  in  a  sub-way 
accident,  the  subsequent  death  rate  was  over  25%,  all  of  which  followed  be- 
tween a  few  hours  to  a  week  afterwards.  ■ —  See  also,  comment  on  arsenic 
poisoning  tmder  "Soldering"  wherever  acids  are  allowed  to  act  on  metals. 

ELECTROPLATING. 

The  process  of  electroplating  consists  in  placing  the  metals  to  be  plated 
in  a  solution  of  an  electrolyte  through  which  an  electric  current  is  passed. 
The  electrolytic  solution  is  usually  contained  in  rectangular  shaped  tubs  or 
vats  which  stand  about  waist  high,  and  the  objects  are  hung  in  the  solution 
for  a  period  of  hours.  The  electrolyte  varies  in  composition  according  to  the 
metal  to  be  deposited. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  43  firms  in  7  cities  and  engaged  532 
wage-earners,  of  whom  510  were  males  and  22  were  females,  (the  latter  all 
employed  in  one  place  where  plating,  buffing  and  coloring  lead  composition 
ornaments  was  done).  Comparatively  few  employes  are  required  for  the 
process  even  in  large  stablishments.  The  industries  covered  were  Art  Glass; 
Automobiles;  Bolts  and  Nuts;  Brass  and  Bronze  Products;  Cash  Registers; 
Coffins;  Copper;  Tin,  and  Sheet  Iron ;  Electrical  Apparatus;  Electroplating; 
Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products;  Furniture;  Instruments;  Regalia;  Signs 
and  Advertising  Novelties;  Stereo  —  and  Electrotyping';  Stoves;  Safes  and 
Vaults ;    and   Wire   Manufacturing. 

In  2  of  the  places  investigated  unions  existed.  The  employers'  attitude 
toward  welfare  of  workers  appeared  very  good  in  26  places,  fair  in  12  more, 
and  not  good  in  4  places.  The  general  type  of  workers  was  an  intelligent  class 
in  29  places,  and  fairly  so  in  10  more  (not  reported  upon  in  3).  Practically  all 
of  the  workers  were  skilled  in  8  places,  and  a  majority  of  them  in  15  more, 
but  in  20  plants  a  large  percentage  of  unskilled  workers  were  employed.     In  all 


lOl 

but  4  places,  workers  appeared  to  be  retained  fairly  steadily  at  the  process. 
Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  and  vents,  particularly  over  hot  cyanide 
solutions,  and  over  steaming  rinsing  tubs,  and  occasionally  room  exhaust  fans 
were  found  present  in  23  places,  in  18  of  which  they  were  very  efficient.  They 
were  absent  in  the  remaining  20,  in  a  few  of  which  they  were  not  needed.  In 
8  places  some  instructions  were  given  in  health  precautions,  but  the  workers 
were  very  ignorant  of  the  exposure  to  poisons  in  most  of  the  balance.  In  a 
like  number  of  places  sick  benefit  associations  existed.  The  general  construc- 
tion of  workrooms  was  hygienically  good  in  19  places,  fairly  so  in  6  more,  and 
not  so  in  15  (the  remaining  3  not  reported  upon).  In  21  establishments  other 
processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters,  such  as  Polishing  and  Buffing, 
Lacquering  and   Shellacing,   Acid   Dipping,   Enameling,   Electrotype  manufacture. 


Fig.  4.V     Aci;)-Dippix(;  jx   Plating  Room. 

Xutc  xentilatur  over  acid  jars.     Ruljber  gloves  and  apron    funiislied.     Xote  also 
health  placard   (overhead  to  the  right). 


storage,  etc.  The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  4n 
years,  70;  under  forty,  462,  of  whom  about  10  per  cent  were  under  20  years. 
In  9  places,  dust,  which  was  due  to  the  presence  of  other  work,  con- 
stituted a  hazard  to  the  electroplaters.  Quarters  were  kept  orderly  and  fairly 
well  clca)icd  in  all  but  2  places.  WhWe  water  and  steam  are  necessary  features, 
these  constituted  no  hazard  in  20  places,  and  were  a  bad  feature  in  only  7, 
where  enough  provision  was  not  made  for  drainage  from  the  floors,  or  the 
removal  of  steam  from  the  air,  or  the  workers  were  not  supplied  with  proper 
clothing.  Some  quarters  were  very  humid  and  were  not  supplied  with  foot 
treads  or  grates  to  keep  the  feet  off  the  wet  floors.  Quarters  were  well 
lighted  in  33  places,  fairly  so  in  4  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6.  The 
character   of   thv  wnrkronm    I'ciihhtluni   was   fair   to  gcind    in    I'l    places.   l)ut   this 

11      O.   D. 


l62 

could  not  be  said  for  the  remaining  22.  Usuallj^,  contamination  with  steam, 
vapors  from  the  tanks,  fumes  from  acid  dipping  in  the  same  quarters  and 
from  other  processes  were  the  reasons  for  vitiated  atmosphere.  In  6  places 
it  was  somewhat  warm,  but  this  was  not  much  of  a  hazard  any  place.  Going 
home  without  changing  the  clothing  from  the  wet  and  steamy  rooms  was 
more  of  a  hazard  than  heat  while  at  work.  Fatigue  was  not  found  to  be  much 
of  a  feature  in  electroplating,  but  prolonged  faulty  postures,  monotony,  and 
constant  standing  were  some  feature.  As  a  rule  electroplating  was  diversified 
work.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  9  places,  8  to  9  hours  in  12  places,  9  to 
10  hours  in  23  places,  and  10  to  11  hours  in  2  places  (three  not  reported  upon). 
The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  27  places,  about  f  hour  in  9,  and  J  hour  in  the 
remaining  6.  The  risk  of  contracting  cominunicahle  diseases  was  graded  as 
fairly  negligible  in  27  places,  but  more  or  less  bad  in  the  remaining,  the  chief 
reasons  -being  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  towels,  poor  closets,  in- 
adequate washing  facilities,  and  the  absence  of  cuspidors.  In  some  places 
workers  at  small  work  were  crowded  together,  while  a  large  percentage  of 
the  workers  were  under  no  medical  supervision.  On  account  of  wet  floors 
and  the  absence  of  dust  in  most  places,  the  risk  of  spreading  disease  through 
spitting  was  not  great.  The  liability  to  poisoning  was  considered  to  be  neg- 
ligible in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  19  more,  but  a  quite  evident  hazard  in  the 
remaining  14.  The  types  of  poisons  were  potassium  cyanide  in  hot  solutions, 
acid  fumes,  alkali  vapors,  copper  sulphate,  and  working  with  lead  (in  a  few 
places),  while  fumes  from  other  processes  such  as  lacquering  and  acid  dipping 
were  frequently  present.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  or  other' 
forms  of  stiimilantisin  was  considered  as  negligible  in  16  places,  and  fairly 
so  in  22  more,  but  the  breathing  of  fumes  and  vapor,  the  hot  steamy  atmos- 
phere in  some  places,  and  the  rather  long  hours,  especially  for  young  persons, 
were   conducive  to  this  where  they  existed. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  on  the  average  good  in  20 
places,  fair  in  17  more,  and  not  good  in  the  remaining,  including  one  or  two 
where  large  numbers  of  employes  were  engaged.  Complaints  from  employes 
were  quite  numerous  and  were  as  follows :  breathing  acid  fumes,  dampness, 
cyanide  ulcers,  coughs,  colds,  throat  trouble,  nasal  irritation,  dizziness  and 
headache.  In  some  instances  our  investigators  suffered  from  difficult  breathing 
and  severe  headache  for  several  hours  after  these  inspections  in  plating 
rooms.  Investigators  reported  a  total  of  8  occupational  afflictions  which  they 
came  across  as  follows :  cyanide  ulcers,  4 ;  chronic  eczema,  2 ;  lung  disease,  2. 
Comments.  —  On  the  whole,  work  in  electroplating  is  not  as  dangerous  as 
might  be  expected  from  the  nature  of  the  poisons  which  are  used.  An  at- 
tempt should  be  made  to  keep  the  atmosphere  in  workrooms  as  nearly  normal 
as  possible  by  providing  hoods  and  vents  over  hot  solutions,  acid  dipping 
places,  for  the  escape  of  steam,  etc.  While  females  are  rarely  employed  at  this 
process,  in  many  places  they  were  engaged  in  lacquering  and  otlier  processes 
in  the  same  quarters  where  plating  fumes  were  quite  noticeable.  Where  the 
processes  are  necessarily  wet  and  sloppy  workers  should  be  provided  with  the 
usual  means  to  protect  themselves,  such  as  rubber  aprons,  boots  and  raised 
floor  tread.  Gloves  should  be  supplied  for  protecting  the  hands  from  cyanide 
solutions,  especially  where  alkalis  are  also  used.  Personal  carelessness  on  the 
part  of  the  workers  and  lack  of  instruction  are  other  reasons  for  dangers  to 
health. 


i63 

In  ELECTROTYPING,  the  design  is  impressed  into  wax,  this  dusted 
over  with  graphite  powder,  then  electroplated  (usually  a  copper  or  nickel 
deposit  is  made  upon  the  graphite),  then  the  wax  is  removed  and  the  thin 
metallic  impression  mounted  on  a  lead  back,  and  this  fastened  to  a  block  of 
wood.  Besides  the  hazards  of  electroplating  there  are  those  of  graphite  dust 
and  lead  (the  latter  melted  in  a  pot,  ladled  out  into  moulds,  cooled  and 
handled). 

MIXING  CHEMICALS. 

There  is  a  distinction  to  be  made  between  the  mixing  (or  compounding) 
of  chemicals  and  the  actual  manufacture  of  chemical  ingredients.  While  new 
substances,  of  course,  result  from  the  mixing  of  chemicals,  such  processes  are 
not  done  with  the  object  in  view  of  making  new  chemicals  as  products  for 
sale.  In  a  large  number  of  industries  certain  chemicals  are  mixed  together,  or 
articles  are  subjected  to  chemical  action,  usually  by  a  few  workers,  ior  use 
throug'hout  the  plant,  or  to  make  up  the  principal  ingredients  worked  upon. 
These  chemicals  may  be  in  the  shape  of  various  dry  preparations  or  of 
liquids  or  of  volatile  substances.  The  best  example  of  this  process  is  the 
mixing  of  paint  ingredients  with  various  solvents  and  vehicles,  but  this  par- 
ticular branch,  as  well  as  some  others,  are  so  important  that  we  take  them  up 
under  separate  heads.  We  cite  here  only  a  few  of  the  instances  in  which 
chemicals  are  mixed  on  the  grounds  of  the  various  establishments :  the  mak- 
ing of  drugs,  photography  and  photo-engraving,  the  preparation  of  inks,  the 
grinding  of  dry  colors,  cleaning  processes  by  chemical  means,  the  mixing  of 
ingredients  for  rubber,  for  enamel,  paper  goods,  railway  signals,  roofing 
materials,  glass,  in  the  refining  of  oil,  the  making  of  perfumes,  etc.  The  chief 
exposure  to  which  these  workers  are  liable  are  poisons,  which  affect  primarily 
the  respiratory  and  digestive  systems,  the  skin,  the  eyes,  and  the  eliminative 
organs.  The  exposures  are  largely  the  result  of  similar  environment  and 
methods,  and  may  all  be  avoided,  more  or  less,  by  the  same  measures. 

Compounding  or  mixing  chemicals  is  here  summed  up  for  20  firms, 
located  in  11  cities,  and  employing  a  total  of  138  wage-earners,  of  whom  127 
were  males  and  11  were  females.  In  14  of  these  places  the  methods  used  were 
modern  from  a  mechanical  point  of  view.  In  the  remaining  6  they  were  more 
or  less  crude  and  obsolete.  The  vast  majority  of  workers  were  unskilled 
labor  of  changing  type,  often  non-English  speaking,  while  the  interest  man- 
ifested in  their  welfare  was  usually  as  nominal  as  anywhere  in  the  plants 
concerned.  However,  in  this  respect  the  general  attitude  toward  them  seemed 
good  in  a  total  of  13  of  the  20  places.  In  5  places  health  appliances  were  pro- 
vided and  were  quite  efficient.  In  2  places  instructions  in  the  care  of  health 
were  definitely  given,  while  the  workers  had  the  benefits  of  sickness  insurance 
associations  in  3  places.  The  construction  of  the  workplace,  as  it  had  a 
bearing  upon  the  health  of  the  employes  engaged  in  the  mixing  of  chemicals, 
was  good  in  14  instances,  fair  in  2  others,  but  bad  in  the  remaining  4.  In  7 
places  workers  at  other  processes  were  exposed  to  the  hazards  of  this  as  were 
these  workers  exposed  to  other  processes.  The  age-group  estimations  for  the 
chemical  mixers  summed  up  as  follows :  over  50  years,  2 :  between  40  and  50 
years,  7;  and  under  40  years,  129,  while  probably  5  per  cent  of  the  latter  were 
under  20  years. 

Dust  from  the  process  wasi  a  negligible  hazard  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  4 
more,    but   bad    in    the    remaining    9.      In    most    instances    it    was    poisonous    in 


164 

character  as  well  as  being  mechanically  irritating.  In  11  places  .quarters  should 
have  been  kept  considerably  cleaner  in  order  to  insure  freedom  from  dust 
and  fumes  arising  from  this  source.  In  4  instances  water,  steam,  daiiifness,  and 
oils  were  also  features,  while  in  2  places  the  light  w^as  very  poor.  There  was 
a  tendency  to  relegate  this  work  to  basement  rooms  or  out-of-the-way  quarters 
which  were  often  quite  uninhabitable  when  one  considers  that  workers  were 
supposed  to  spend  8  to  12  hours  a  day  in  them.  In  this  respect  some  16  places 
were  deficient  in  ventilating  arrangements  so  that  the  air  was  more  or  less 
continuously  vitiated. by  one  or  more  of  the  usual  causes  (deoxidation,  con- 
tamination, pollution,  stagnation,  and  faulty  temperature-humidity  relations). 
In  4  places  workers  were  subject  to  an  undue  amount  of  heat  while  there  was 
the  often  present  risk  of  catching  cold  throu;5h  going  from  hot  to  cold  quarters. 
Fatigue  was  not  a  usual  feature  of  this  process,  although  in  2  places  it  was 
considered  as  a  hazard.  On  the  other  hand,  inactiziity  from  the  sedentary 
character  of  the  work  was  a  feature  in  1  place.  The  workday  for  this  class 
of  workers  was  8  hours  in  2  plants,  8f  to  9  hours  in  4  plants,  and  from  QJ 
to  13  hours  in  the  remaining  14  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  1 
place,  i  hour  in  6  places,  ^  hour  in  10  places,  while  in  the  remaining  plant,  in 
which  there  were  two  shifts  working  11  hours  a  day  and  13  hours  at  night, 
workers  were  not  allowed  to  leave  the  plant  during  the  entire  shift.  The 
liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  considered  negligible  in  4 
places  only.  For  various  places  the  whole  list  of  sub-factors  were  present.  As 
these  processes  were  conducted,  the  risk  of  poisoning  seemed  negligible  with 
ordinary  care  on  the  part  of  employes  in  4  places,  and  fairly  so  in  4  more, 
while,  in  the  remaining  12,  the  risk  was  great  and  depended  very  largely  upon 
the  surroundings  and  methods  used.  It  is  true  that  in  a  number  of  these  in- 
stances working  conditions  were  satisfactory  enough  if  employes  had  been 
informed  correctly  of  the  risks  of  poisoning  at  hand,  and  instructed  in  the 
avoidance  of  the  same.  This  responsibility,  however,  was  too  often  not  as- 
sumed by  the  employer.  Oftentimes  the  latter  acknowledged  he  was  not 
posted.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulant^ism  (principalh"  alcoholism) 
was  present  in  16  places  and  especially  so  in  5,  with  the  poison  hazard  as  the 
chief  cause  and  the  other  hazards  of  dust,  vitiated  air,  heat,  cold,  etc.,  coming 
in  thereafter. 

The  general  appearance  of  chemical  mixers  was  good  on  the  whole  in  9 
places,  but  below  par  in  the  remaining  11,  in  which  a  total  of  55  workers  were 
concerned.  The  health  complaints  and  complaints  of  working  conditions  by 
employes  were,  where  English-speaking  persons  could  be  interviewed,  varied  and 
numerous,  and  usually  checked  up  very  closely  with  the  hazards  which  our 
investigators  found  to  be  present.  A  number  of  cases  of  Chronic  poisoning 
were  discovered  by  our  investigators  among  these  W'Orkers.  It  is  from  this 
class  that  a  considerable  percentage  of  cases  which  physicians  encounter  in 
their  practice  are  also  drawn. 

Comments.  —  Unquestionably  the  risk  of  lead  poisoning  is  the  chief  one 
of  all  the  poisons  concerned,  as  lead  and  its  various  compounds  are  so  univers- 
ally used.  It  may  be  said  that  there  are  practically  no  lead  compounds  which 
are  harmless-,  since  it  has  been  proven  that  any  and  all  of  them,  commonly 
used  in  industry,  are  soluble  in  the  stomach  juices  and  hence  only  have  to  be 
swallowed  to  become  a  menace.  After  lead,  benzine  or  naphtha  was  probably 
the  next  in  frequency,  and  thereafter  all  manners  of  poisons  both  organic  and 


i65 

inorganic.  Very  seldom,  of  course,  did  workers  suffer  from  acute  or  sudden 
attacks,  but  the  characteristic  of  most  industrial  poisons  is  their  slow  and 
progressive  action,  so  that  it  is  only  after  we  look  over  sickness  records  and 
death  statistics  for  numbers  of  years^  that  the  appalling  amount  of  preventable 
diseases,  and  deaths  from  degenerative  diseases,  become  evident.  Since  74 
per  cent  of  all  trades-persons  (as  shown  in  Part  II)  die  unnecessary  deaths, 
it  is  very  probable  that  90  per  cent  of  the  sicknesses  as  well  as  deaths  among 
chemical  mixers  are  preventable.  Placards,  drawn  up  by  qualified  health 
authorities,  explaining  the  slowly  acting  poisonous  nature  of  these  substances 
and  adapted  to  each  trade  process,  and  explaining  to  foremen  and  employes 
how  to  avoid  poisoning,  should  be  posted  up  in  all  of  these  work  quarters. 

WOOD  WORKING. 

The  various  carpenter  shop,  cabinet  making,  pattern  making,  cooperage, 
and  veneering  processes,  which  are  all  that  are  intended  to  be  included  under 
the  term  "wood  working",  were  investigated  in  a  total  of  50  establishments 
employing  2,497  wage-earners,  of  whom  6  were  females.  The  analysis  here 
given  is  based  upon  the  various  wood  working  processes  in"  connection  with  the 
following  industries :  Agricultural  Implements,  Automobiles,  Boxes,  Carriages, 
Wagons,  Cars,  Cash  Registers,  Cooperage,  Coffins,  Cutlery,  Electrical  Ap- 
paratus, Foundries  and  Machine  Shops,  Furniture  and  Refrigerators,  Iron  and 
Steel  Works,  Oil  Rejining,  Ship  Building,  Signs  and  Advertising  Novelties, 
and  Wood  Carving. 

According  to  the  Ohio  Vital  Statistics  report,  there  were  852  deaths  among 
Workers  in  Lumber  and  its  remanufacture  during  the  years  1910,  1911,  and 
1!>12.  Of  this  number  93  or  10.91%  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  Among 
Carpenters  and  Joiners  there  were  2,358  deaths,  of  which  number  221  died  of 
pulmonary  tuberculosis  or  9.37%.  These  rates  compare  very  favorably  with 
that  for  all  occupations  combined  for  the  same  years  which  was  13.3%,  and 
even  for  those  engaged  in  Agricultural  Pursuits    (7.13%). 

The  methods  observed  appeared  to  be  modern  in  26  places,  fairly  so  in 
18  more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  6.  The  attitude  toward  employes  appeared 
good  in  31  places,  and  at  least  fair  in  the  remaining,  with  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  one  or  two  where  large  numbers  of  foreigners  were  employed.  The 
general  type  of  workers  was  fair  to  good  in  all  except  2  places,  while  their 
steadiness  in  the  plants  where  they  were  employed  was  generally  good  in  36 
plants,  fair  in  6  more,  poor  in  3  (and  not  reported  upon  in  the  remaining  5). 
Health  appliances,  consisting  of  various  blower  systems  and  methods  of  con- 
fining dust,  were  good  in  18  places,  fair  in  4  more,  and  absent  or  very  in- 
adequate in  25.  In  6  of  the  places  instructions  along  health  lines  were  found. 
Benefit  organizations  covering  sickness,  and,  in  some  cases,  deaths,  and  pen- 
sions were  present  in  13  places.  Most  of  the  workers  were  skilled  hands,  but 
still  a  large  number  employed  at  various  auxiliary  processes  "were  unskilled 
labor.  Figures  on  age-groups  summed  up  to  show  that  about  ]  of  the  total 
employes  were  over  40  years  of  age,  while  only  a  few  were  under  2<'.  Car- 
penter shops  were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  13  places,  fairl_\-  so  in  14 
more,  not  so  in  17  (and  not  reported  upon  in  the  remaining  6).  In  about  1/10 
of  the  places  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters,  such  as 
Painting,   Machine   Shopping,   and   various    factory  processes. 


i66 

Dust,  derived  from  wood,  sandpaper,  sanding  belts,  and  various  machines, 
was  negligible  in  6  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  15,  a  bad  hazard  in  25  (and  not 
reported  upon  in  2).  The  floors  were  kept  excellently  clean  and  orderly  in  5 
places,  fairly  so  in  23  miOTe,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  22.  Damp  quiarters 
were  a  health-hazard  in  3  places.  Light  was  good  in  38  places,  fair  in  8  more, 
and  poor  in  3.  Workroom  ventilation  was  good  in  15  places,  fair  in  21,  .^nd 
poor  in  12  places,  usually  due  to  an  interior  or  confined  location  of  the  carpen- 
ter shop.  Three  places  were  unduly  hot,  and  2  others  fairly  so,  due  to  the 
proximity  to  other  heating  processes,  the  presence  of  steam  chambers,  etc. 
Nine  places  were  not  sufficiently  heated  for  winter  purposes.  Except  for  the 
"carpenter's  stoop"  and  certain  monotonous  piece-work  operations,  usually 
requiring  constant  standing  still,  the  element  of  fatigue  was  not  found  to  be 


Fig.  46.     Woodworking  Shop. 
Light,  spacious.     All  dust-producing  machines  have  a  powerful  exhaust  system. 


much  of  a  factor  in  the  processes.  The  most  striking  factor  was  the  ear- 
splitting  noises  from  certain  ripping  and  planing  machines.  The  workday  was 
fotmd  to  vary  between  8  and  10  hours,  the  usual  rule  being  a  10-hour  day,  J 
hour  noons,  and  Saturday  afternoons  off.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of 
communicable  diseases  was  a  considerable  hazard  in  39  places,  the  chief  reasons 
being  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  spitting  upon  the  dusty  floors,  inadequate  wash- 
ing facilities,  poor  closets,  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  towels,  and 
occasionally  the  crowding  together  of  workers,  and  dry  sweeping  during  work 
hours.  Medical  supervision  obtained  in  4  plants;  first-aid  equipments  (par- 
ticularly for  small  cuts  and  bruises)  were  found  present  in  most  all  places. 
Poisoning  from  the  woods  worked  upon  was  found  to  be  a  complaint  in  3 
plants,   but    no    alkaloidal    woods   were    met    with.      Complaints   were    made    of 


167 

"dust  bronchitis"  and,  less  often,  of  the  irritating  effects  of  dust  from  coco- 
bola  wood,  rarely  from  walnut  and  birch.  In  some  instances  gas  fumes, 
steam,  and  oak  fumes  from  drying  ovens  were  complained  of.  The  presence 
of  other  processes  rendered  some  workers  liable  to  poisoning  from  ammonia, 
gasoline,  and  wood  alcohol,  —  these  in  addition  to  Painting  and  Sanding. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  a  matter  of  dust  exposure  largely, 
but  in  some  16  plants  drinking  water  facilities  were  quite  inadequate. 

The  physical  appearances  of  workers  were  found  to  be  good  for 
practically  all  persons  in  33  establishments,  fairly  so  in  9  more,  and  not  so 
in  3.  A  number  of  industrially  maimed  workers  were  seen.  The  chief  com- 
plaints of  the  workers  were  the  necessity  of  blower  systems  where  such  were 
not  provided,  and  the  inadequacy  of  some  which  were  present;  occasionally, 
also,  the  poor  ventilation  of  quarters,  inefficient  heating  in  the  winter,  and  the 
presence  of  fumes  and  vapors  from  other  processes.  In  several  plants  all 
dust  producing  processes  were  found  to  be  excellently  well  taken  care  of,  the 
more  difficult  ones  sometimes  through  the  ingenuity  of  the  workers  them- 
selves. Comments.  —  Most  of  the  hazards  above  mentioned  define  their  own 
preventions.  As  with  other  processes  investigated,  it  would  appear  that  there 
is  great  need  for  an  engineering  bureau  to  collect  the  variovis  successful  con- 
trivances which  have  been  made  to  confine  dust  and  to  make  them  available 
to  all.  The  fact  that  wood  dust  is  organic  and  usually  non-irritating,  except 
a  few  of  the  rarely  used  woods,  probably  accounts  for  the  longevity  of  car- 
.penters  and  their  relative  freedom  from  consumption.  However,  from  one 
large  furniture  plant  employing  many  foreign  laborers,  there  were  9  cases  of 
consumption  reported  during  the  last  six  months  of  the  survey  when  an  ac- 
count was  kept  of  the  cases  of  tuberculosis  among  workers  in  that  vicinity. 

GLUING,    PASTING   AND  LABELING. 

The  processes  indicated  in  the  title  are  reported  upon  as  investigated  in  8 
plants,  including  the  following  industries :  Manufacture  of  Fancy  and  Paper 
Boxes,  Patent  Medicines  and  Drugs,  Printing  and  Publishing,  Musical  In- 
struments, Paper,  Cigar  and  Tobacco,  Regalia  and  Paint  and  Varnish  Man- 
ufacture. In  these  8  plants  there  were  a  total  of  194  wage-earners  so  em- 
ployed, of  whom  56  were  males  and  138  were  females..  Occasionally  machine 
methods  were  used,  but  the  vast  majority  of  the  workers  were  doing  hand 
work.  There  were  no  unions.  The  general  attitude  of  the  employers,  the 
type  of  the  workers,  and  the  steadiness  at  work  places  appeared  good  'n\  all 
except  1  or  2  places.  In  two  places  heated  clothes-lockers  were  provided  to 
enable  employes  to  dry  their  outer  garments  in  case  of  rain.  In  the  same 
number  of  places  some  instructions  were  given  along  the  subject  of  health 
conservation.  In  1  place  the  workers  had  the  privileges  of  an  employes'  ben- 
efit association.  In  4  places  workers  were  at  least  semi-skilled.  Workrooms 
were  hygienically  constructed  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  and  not  so  in 
the  remaining  1,  while  in  the  case  of  Cigar  Making,  especially,  other  processes 
were  done  in  the  same  quarters.  There  were  18  workers  over  40  years,  and  a 
considerable  number,  especially  females,  under  20  years. 

The  chief  hazard  was  the  licking  of  labels  by  a  certain  number  of  the 
employes  in  different  industries,  although  they  were  all  provided  with  other 
means   of   moistening  them.      Steaming  ketlles    of    glues    and    pastes    produce4 


i68  • 

considerable  humidity  m  some  places.  A  number  of  samples  of  paste  and 
glues  were  examined  chemically,  but  no  poisons  (metallic)  were  found.  Some 
workers,  however,  were  associated  with  art  work  (see  Printing) .  Instances 
were  cited  where  workers  were  found  unable  to  tolerate  the  odors  of  hot 
glue,  particularly  fish  glue.  In  a  number  of  places  fatigue  was  some  factor, 
due  to  hurrying  piece-work,  with  monotonous  and  often  sedentary  application, 
faulty  postures,  and,  in  the  case  of  machine  work,  jarring  processes,  and 
occasionally  loud  noises.  In  1  place  the  workday  was  8  hours ;  in  1  place,  8J ; 
and  in  the  remainder  from  9  to  10  hours.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  4 
places,  f  hour  in  1  place,  and  J  hour  in  the  remaining  3.  General  sanitary  ar- 
rangements and  workroom  h3'-giene  ranged  from  fair  to  bad  in  half  of  the 
places  investigated;  they  were  good  in  the  remaining.  Coiiments. —  (See  also 
General  Factory  Processes.)  Labelers  run  the  risk  of  lead  poisoning  in  paint 
factories  where  the  filled  and  sealed  cans  come  to  them  often  finger-marked 
with  fresh  paint.  The  lahefers  handle  the  cans  (some  of  them  carelessly)  and  • 
moisten  their  thumbs  in  their  lips  to  expedite  the  handling  of  the  labels.  — 
Likewise,  in  the  tobacco  and  cigar  industrj^,  it  is  the  materials  handled  (usually 
b}^   females)    which  tend  to  nauseate  and  produce  digestive  troubles. 

PAINTING  AND  VARNISHING. 

These  two  processes  are  usually  carried  on  by  the  same  workers  and  the 
terms  stand  for  a  varietj'  of  sub-processes,  which  include  the  brushing  on  of 
paint  and  varnish,  filling,  rubbing,  sandpapering,  staining,  priming,  oiling,  dip- 
ping b}^  hand  or  machinery,  spraying,  stenciling,  hand  decorating,  striping,  and 
polishing.  Sometimes  the  work  is  associated  with  shellacing,  lacquering, 
enameling  and  japanning,  but  it  is  not  intended  to  include  these  here.  The 
indoor  painting  shops  (these  only  are  considered  here)  were  investigated  in 
127  establishments,  located  in  15  cities,  and  emplo}-ing  a  total  of  ■2,.382,  of  whom 
2,328  were  males,  and  54  were  females.  The  industries  in  which  painting  was 
investigated  were  Agricultural  Implements,  8;  Art  Glass,  5;  Automobiles,  23; 
Bicycles  and  Sewing  Machines,  1 ;  Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  2  ;  Carriages  and 
Wagons,  47 ;  Cars,  8 ;  Coffins,  3 ;  Electrical  Apparatus,  4 ;  Enameling  and 
Japanning,  1  ;  Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products,  4 ;  Furniture,  1 ;  Iron  and 
Steel  Mill  Products,  2;  Photo  Art  Work,  1;  Safes  and  Vaults,  3;  Shipbuild- 
ing, 2;  Signs  and  Advertising  Novelties,  6;  Regalia,  1;  Toys  and  Games,  2; 
Wire  Manufacturing,  1. 

■Ohio  Vital  Statistics  Reports  for  the  years  1910,  1911  and  1912  show  a 
total  of  1,025  deaths  among  "painters,  glaziers,  varnishers,  and  paperhangers". 
of  which  number  185,  or  18.05  per  cent  died  of  pulmonary  tuberculosis.  The 
figures  upon  tuberculosis  must  be  regarded  as  quite  conservative,  or  too  low 
for  the  class  of  painters  and  varnishers  (indoor  workers)  which  we  are  con- 
sidering here.  Also  the  hazards  for  glaziers  and  paperhangers  (these  workers 
could  not  be  separated)  are  much  less  than  for  indoor  shop  painters.  The 
above  rates  should  be  compared  with  the  pulmonary  death  rate  for  all  occupa- 
tions combined  during  the  same  years,  which  was  13.3  per  cent,  and  also  to 
that  for  Agriculturists  which  was  7.13  per  cent.     Also  with   Carpenters. 

Union  organizations  existed  in  9  of  the  places  investigated.  Interest  in 
employes'  health  and  welfare  was  very  manifest  in  65  places,  fairly  so  in  30 
niore,   and   only   questionably   so    in    the   remaining  32.      An    intelligent   type   of 

J 


workers  were  einpIo3'ed  in  93  places,  fairly  so  in  25  more,  while  in  9  the}'  were 
practical^  all  an  ignorant  type  of  foreigners.  Apparent  endeavors  were  made 
10  keep  the  same  workers  in  9U  of  the  plants,  fairly  so  in  17  more,  while  little 
thought  appeared  to  be  given  to  the  personnel  in  the  remaining  20.  In  a  total 
of  17  places,  various  forms  of  health  appliances  were  found,  consisting  of 
hoods  and  vents  to  remove  fumes,  vapors  and  dust,  and  to  promote  better 
ventilation  in  work  quarters.  These  appeared  to  be  efficient  in  7  places,  fairly 
so  in  4  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6.  In  110  places  there  was  nothing 
present  which  could  be  so  designated.  In  many  of  these,  of  course,  the  work 
was  done  in  very  spacious  quarters  so  that  some  hazards  were  correspondingly 
less.  Instructions  concerning  the  dangers  of  poisoning  were  well  given  in  10 
places,  and  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but  in  the  remaining  110  but  little  attention 
was  given  to  this,  and  in  some  places  very  crude  ideas  existed  concerning  the 
methods  of  preventing  poisoning.  Sick  benefit  associations  existed  in  12 
places.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in 
39  places,  fairly  so  in  46  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  42.  Other  processes  - 
were  present  in  about  i  of  the  places,  such  as  wood-working,  machine  shopping, 
and   general   factory  work.     Age-group   estimations   summed   up   as    follows : 

No.    of 
Age   Groups.  Wage-earners 

Over  50  years   82 

45  to  50  years 88 

40  to  45  years .200 

20  to  40  years 1,957 

Under  20  years 55 

Total    2,382 

The  work  was  done  without  the  creation  of  dust  and  dust  was  a  negligible 
hazard  in  53  places  but  it  constituted  some  hazard  in  23  more,  and  a  bad  hazard 
in  the  remaining  51.  Its  danger  consisted  especially  in  its  lead  content.  The 
chief  source  of  dust  was  the  sanding,  sandpapering,  or  dry  "rubbing  down"  of 
painted  surfaces,  or  surfaces  which  had  been  previously  lead  filled.  In  the 
case  of  some  fine  work  a  great  many  coats  of  paint  were  applied  on  a  lead 
priming  coat,  and  each  coat  "rubbed  down",  or  sanded  by  hand.  Oftentimes 
the  worker  was  in  a  confined  space  and  unable  to  avoid  the  dust  created.  Very 
often  it  was  impossible  to  control  the  dust  and  keep  the  worker  from  breathing- 
it  by  any  other  means  than  the  constant  wearing  of  a  respirator,  to  which  the 
workers  usually  had  violent  objection.  In  31  places  premises  were  kept  clean 
and  orderly,  and  fairly  so  in  54  more,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  42,  so  that 
the  paint  and  dust  which  was  allowed  to  accumulate  constituted  a  hazard  in 
these  proportions.  A  few  places  kept  floors  clean  by  laying  papers  down  be- 
fore beginning  work.  In  a  total  of  16  places  dampness,  due,  sometimes,  to 
location  of  the  workroom,  constituted  a  hazard.  This  was  bad  in  4  places. 
Also  the  process  of.  water  rubbing  added  to  it  in  a  number  of  places.  Quarters 
were  naturally  well  lighted  in  104  places,  only  fairly  so  in  18  more,  and  not  so 
in  the  remaining  5.  \^ery  often  the  use  of  naked  electric  lamps  was  depended 
upon  for  artificial  lighting.  Quarters  were  well  ventilated  in  41  places,  fairly 
so  in  45  more,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  41.     The  reasons  for  poor  air  con- 


170 

ditions  were  contamination  with  various  paint  and  varnish  fumes,  chiefly,  but 
also  the  absence  of  air-agitators,  or  room  exhaust  fans  in  a  large  percentage  of 
such  places,  or  a  fresh  supply  of  air  to  workers  in  confined  places  (ships,  cars, 
cabinets,  vaults,  etc.).  Quarters  were  warm  enough  to  be  of  some  hazard  to 
health  in  about  20  places,  especially  since  they  were  constantly  so.  Usually, 
the  heat  was  due  to  maintaining  warm  quarters  to  promote  drying  of  painted 
and  varnished  surfaces.  On  the  other  hand,  quarters  were  inefficiently  heated 
for  winter  work  in  many  places.  (This  does  not  include  the  painting  of  cars 
which  is  often  practical}-  out-door  work.)  Fatigue  was  some  factor  in  about  3 
of  the  places  investigated.  The  reasons  for  this  were,  in  descending  order : 
hurrying  piece-work,  monotonous  application  at  the  selfsame  movements,  pro- 
longed standing -in  one  place,  and,  in  a  number  of  instances  where  workers 
were  seated,  no  backs  to  the  chairs  or  stools  furnished.  The  workday  was  8 
hours  in  7  places,  8  to  9  hours  in  33  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  62  places  (and  not 
determined  in  the  remaining  25).  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  39  places, 
about  f  hour  in  17  places,  ^  hour  in  61  (and  not  determined  in  the  remaining 
10).  The  liabilitj'  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  graded  in 
122  places  as  follows :  negligible,  12 ;  fair  risk,  42 ;  bad  risk,  68.  The  chief 
causes  were  promiscuous  spitting  where  more  or  less  dust  existed,  the  ab- 
sence of  cuspidors,  absence  or  great  inadequacy  of  wash-places,  poor  closets, 
common  drinking  cups,  and  towels.  Occasionally  workers  were  closely 
crowded.  Also  wiping  rags  from  unknown  sources  and  unsterilized  were 
almost  universally  used.  The  greatest  hazard  to  health  in  the  process  is  that  of 
poisoning.  The  principal  poisons  found  were  lead  (both  as  dust  and  in  solution 
in  oil  and  water,  or  spraj-,  also  "kicked  up"  from  dust  accumulations),  tur- 
pentine, benzine,  benzol,  wood  alcohol,  creosote  and  asphaltum.  In  a  number 
of  the  industries  investigated  it  was  claimed  that  no  lead  was  used.  In  others 
lead  was  only  used  at  intervals.  It  is  well  to  mention  that  drying  oils  (boiled 
oil,  etc.)  often  contain  lead  oxide  as  the  principal  drier.  A  physician  called  our 
attention  to  three  cases  of  severe  lead  poisoning  which  he  had  in  a  father 
and  two  sons  who  drank  some  "boiled"  oil  to  relieve  constipation.  Often- 
times it  "was  impossible  to  determine  all  the  poisons  that  might  be  present,  in 
which  case  the  investigators  simply  reported  "paint",  "varnish  fumes",  "paint 
removers",  etc.  However,  paint  removers  were  not  very  much  used.  Hand 
rubbing  with  oil  containing  a  lead  drier,  and  hand  polishing  with  a  solution 
containing  wood  alcohol  (about  two  quarts  to  five  gallons  of  mixture)  were 
also  noted.  There  were  many  predisposing  causes  to  poisoning,  the  chief  being 
the  breathing  of  dust  and  sprays  containing  lead,  and  of  fumes  of  the  various 
volatile  substances  used.  "No  place  to  wash  up  before  eating",  was  a  common 
complaint.  In  one  place  six  men  used  an  old  paint  can  to  wash  in.  Lack  of 
correct  information  on  the  prevention  of  lead  poisoning,  the  idea,  held  by 
many,  that  they  bore  charmed  lives  and  could  not  be  poisoned,  carelessness  in 
eating,  eating  in  the  workroom,  failure  to  connect  up  minor  sickness  com- 
plaints with  the  existence  of  slow  poisoning,  and  personal  carelessness  —  these 
constituted  the  chief  hazards.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  is  con- 
siderable for  practically  all  workers  engaged  in  this  process,  due  to  the  poison 
elements  present,  to  dust,  to  nauseating  fumes  and  odors,  and  the  like.  Many 
of  these  workers  go  without  breakfast  because  they  have  no  appetite  for  the 
same  —  a  sign  of  lead  poisoning   (particularly). 

The  general  appearance  of  indoor  or  shop  painters  was  in  the  majority 
of  instances  below  par.     In  this  respect  the  investigators  reported  the  general 


171 

average  of  workers  not  healthy  appearing  in  a  total  of  68  plants.  In  45  dif- 
ferent establishments  workmen  were  found  who  made  various  complaints  con- 
cerning the  health  aspects  of  the  processes  in  which  they  were  engaged.  Ar- 
ranged in  as  nearly  descending  order  of  frequency  as  possible,  these  were: 
breathing  of  dust,  breathing  of  fumes,  lack  of  good  room  ventilation,  digestive 
troubles,  attacks  of  dizziness,  personal  carelessness,  kidney  and  bladder  troubles, 
and  general  sanitary  inadequacies.  Investigators  reported  167  cases  of  occu- 
pational diseases  as  follows : 

Lead  poisoning,  positive    90 

Lead  poisoning,  tentative 27 

Lead  poisoning,  partially  recovered  from 26 

Lead  poisoning,  authentic  hearsay  cases 10 

Lead  poisoning,  ocular 1 

Benzine  and  Naphtha  poisoning 3 

Turpentine  poisoning   2 

Varnish  poisoning   2 

Wood  Alcohol  poisoning    1 

Bleeding  fingers  from  sanding 1 

Dermatitis     2 

Tubercular   Bronchitis    2 

Total ' 167 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  were  large  numbers  of  hearsay  cases  and 
other  evidence  which  the  Survey  did  not  have  the  time  to  investigate  further.  In 
some  old  established  places,  foremen  said  that  practically  all  workers  ever  em- 
ployed got  lead  poisoning.  In  one  large  place  it  was  said  that  at  times  there 
were  "epidemics"  of  bladder  and  kidnej-  troubles  due  to  the  turpentine  and  other 
solvents  used.  The  health  officer  of  Cincinnati,  Dr.  Landis,  called  our  attention 
to  the  harmful  effects  of  certain  new  paint  solvents  which  were  producing  a  new 
train  of  symptoms  among  painters. 

Comments.  —  Dry  rubbing  or  sanding  of  painted  surfaces  should  be  sub- 
stituted by  wet  methods,  or  with  mineral  oil,  to  keep  down  the  dust.  Occasion- 
ally, local  exhausts  can  be  used.  Where  these  are  unfeasible,  the  worker 
should  wear  a  tight  respirator,  perhaps  supplied  with  air  under  pressure,  while 
frequent  change  from  this  process  to  another  is  essential.  Almost  the  same 
precautions  should  be  taken  in  regard  to  spraying.  As  much  needed  as  any- 
thing are  placards  informing  workers  how  to  prevent  lead  poisoning,  and  other 
health  educational  measures.  Great  precaution  should  be  taken  to  keep  quarters 
clean  so-  as  to  prevent  the  "kicking  up"  of  dust.  Good  washing  facilities  and 
insistence  upon  their  use  are  absolutely  necessary.  Street  clothes  and  lunch 
boxes  should  be  kept  out  of  painting  quarters.  —  For  vapors,  fumes  and  gases, 
spacious  quarters,  air-agitators,  local  exhaust  hoods,  blowers  and  short  inter- 
vals at  such  work  are  suggestions  variously  adaptable  to  various  places. 
Finally,  there  is  no  other  class  of  workers,  from  the  large  numbers  employed 
to  the  poison  factors  concerned,  which  is  more  in  need  of  a  frequent  medical 
examination  than  indoor   (shop)   painters. 

In  a  number  of  instances,  as  for  instance,  STENCILING,  marking,  etc., 
harmless  substitutes  could  be  used  for  lead  and  other  poison-containing  paints, 


1/2 

and  in  a  number  of  instances  it  was   found  that  lead  paints  were  being  used 
less  and  less. 

In  a  paper  entitled,  "The  Composition  of  Paint  Vapors"  (Jour.  Indust. 
&  Engrg.  Chem.  Vol.  VI.,  No.  2,  Feb.,  1914)  H.  A.  Gardner,  Assistant  Di- 
rector Institute  of  Industrial  Research,  Washington,  D.  C,  calls  attention  to 
carbon  dioxide,  carbon  monoxide,  benzol,  formic  acid,  and  aldehydic  sub- 
stances, which  may  be  evolved  from  surfaces  covered  by  drying  oil  paints. 
All  of  these,  of  course,  are  toxic  substances,  and  the  author's  contention  that 
the  carbon  monoxide  may  be  responsible  for  the  peculiar  type  of  anemia  from 
which  painters  sometimes  sufifer  is  certainly  a  possibility.  The  newer  forms 
of  quick  drying  paints  are  the  most  likelj^  to  \deld  these  substances.  (See  also 
Bulletin  No.  41,  Paint  Manufacturers'  Association  of  the  U.  S.)  Ventilation  of 
painting  quarters,  or  quarters  being  painted,  is  the  only  means  of  avoiding  the 
effects  of  these  substances. 

SHELLACING  AND  LACQUERING. 

A  shellac  is  a  gum  resin  produced  by  an  insect  on  several  East  Indian 
trees.  The  resin  is  dissolved  in  ordinary  alcohol,  denatured  alcohol,  or  wood 
alcohol,  according  to  its  purpose.  A  lacquer  is  a  thin,  highly  transparent 
varnish  used  to  produce  a  thin,  lustrous  film  on  metals,  etc.,  to  preserve  them 
against  gases  and  vapors.  The  process  of  Shellacing  and  Lacquering  is  closely 
associated  with  Painting,  Varnishing  and  Staining,  and  in  many  instances  it  is 
quite  impossible  to  separate  them,  since  the  same  workers  may  be  concerned 
with  each  process.  Shellac  and  lacquer  may  be  brushed  or  sprayed  on,  or 
articles  may  be  dipped  into  the  solutions. 

In  32  establishments,  in  9  cities,  employing. a  total  of  894  wage-earners, 
of  whom  868  were  males  and  26  were  females,  the  processes  of  shellacing  and 
lacquering  were  fairly  well  separated  from  the  other  processes  mentioned. 
General  conditions  respecting  the  types  of  workers,  health  appliances,  con- 
struction of  workrooms  and  presence  of  other  processes  were  practically  the 
same  as  for  Painting  and  Varnishing. 

The  hazards  of  dust,  dirt,  dampness,  darkness,  heat  and  cold,  Vv^ere  all 
less  than  for  Painting  (warm,  light  rooms  free  from  dust  being  a  necessity). 
The  condition  of  the  atmosphere  in  workrooms  was  good  in  14,  fair  in  19, 
and  bad  in  the  remaining  6  places,  due  chiefly  to  contamination  with  the 
fumes  and  vapors  emitted  from  the  process,  combined  with  stagnation  and 
temperature-humidity  abnormalities.  Fatigue  was  usually  a  negligible  factor, 
except  that  in  a  few  places  piecework,  monotony,  constant  standing  and  faulty 
postures  were  observed.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  1  place,  8  to  9  hours  in 
11  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  25  places,  and  10  to  11  hours  in  2  places.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  9  places,  about  f  hour  in  7  places,  \  hour  in  the  remain- 
ing 23. 

Age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows  :  over  40  years,  195 ;  20  to 
40  years,  671 ;  under  20  years,  28.  There  was  a  tendency  to  employ  youths  of 
both  sexes.  The  liability  to  communicable  diseases  was  not  quite  as  great  as 
among  painters  because  dust  was  not  so  frequent.  Various  poisons  to  which 
workers  were  subjected  were  lead  (in  boiled  oil),  turpentine,  amyl  acetate, 
wood  alcohol,  benzine  (naphtha),  benzol,  toluene,  acetone  (?),  "banana  oil" 
and  other  varnish  and  lacquer  solvents    (and  varnish  removers). 


173 

The  average  appearance  of  workers  was  generally  good  in  16  places,  fair 
in  12  more,  while  pallor,  anemia  (but  sometimes  very  flushed  faces  and  red- 
dened eyes),  and  emaciation  characterized  the  remaining  11  places.  The 
chief  complaints  of  workers  were  the  effects  of  turpentine  fumes  and  "varnish" 
causing  (besides  dizziness)  digestive,  respiratory,  skin,  kidney  and  bladder 
troubles.  Our  investigators  found  the  following  occupational  diseases  among 
workers  : 

Lead  poisoning,  positive    4 

Turpentine  poisoning,  tentative 8 

Benzine  poisoning,  tentative 2 

Occupational  dermatitis,  positive 6 

Occupational  rhinitis  1 

Occupational  anemia   1 

Occupational  tuberculosis    1 

Occupational  nephritis    1 

Comments.  —  See  under  Painting  and  Varnishing.  It  is  also  questionable 
whether  females  should  be  employed  in  any  processes  exposing  them  to  shellac, 
lacquer,  varnish,  or  polishing  fumes.    The  same  may  be  said  of  j^ouths. 

ENAMELING. 

As  commonly  understood,  an  enamel  is  an  air-drying  or  baking  varnish  to 
which  color  and  opacity  have  been  imparted  by  the  addition  of  pigments  (in 
some  instances,  also,  of  dyes).  The  process  consists  in  applying  enamel  to 
steel,  iron,  soft  metal  alloys,  wood,  and  glass  in  a  moist  or  oil  form  with 
brushes,  or  by  pouring,  dipping,  blowing,  or  spraying  with  compressed  air,  and 
in  a  dry  form  by  sieving,  dusting,  or  blowing  the  powdered  enamel  upon  the 
ware.  The  objects  are  then  dried  and  baked  in  a  special  oven,  furnace  or 
kiln  to  harden  the  enamel.  Japanning  was  a  frequently  associated  process. 
While  in  3  of  the  places  reported  here,  porcelain  enameling  of  iron  was  done, 
this  process  itself  is  considered  elsewhere. 

Enameling  was  investigated  in  25  establishments,  in  8  cities,  and  employed 
a  total  of  716  wage-earners,  of  whom  377  were  males,  and  139  were  females. 
The  females  were  employed,  chiefly,  at  spraying  enamel.  The  following  in- 
dustries were  included :  Agricultural  Implements,  Automobiles,  Bicycles  and 
Sewing  Machines,  Brass  and  Bronze  Products,  Copper,  Tin  and  Sheet  Iron 
Goods,  Cutlery  and  Tools,  Electrical  Apparatus,  Enameling  and  Japanning, 
Foundry  and  Machine  Shop  Products,  Furniture,  Safes  and  Vaults,  Signs  and 
Advertising  Novelties,   Stoves  and  Furnaces,  and  Toys  and  Games. 

In  two  or  thjee  small  places  very  crude  processes  appeared  to  be  used. 
There  were  no  union  organizations.  The  general  interest  of  employers  in  the 
welfare  of  their  workers  was  good  in  19  places,  fair  in  5  more,  and  poor  in  1 
small  place.  An  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  employed  in  16  places,  fairly 
so  in  7  more,  and  an  ignorant  class  of  foreigners  in  the  remaining  2.  Every 
attempt  seemed  to  be  made  to  retain  the  employes  in  19  places,  fairly  so  in  4 
more,  while  in  the  remaining  2,  little  attention  appeared  to  be  given  to  the 
personnel.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  hoods  and  vents,  or  work  within 
boxes  for  spraying,  or  respirators  for  sanding  or  brushing,  as  well  as  arrange- 
ments to  protect  against  the  heaf  from  baking  ovens,  were  present  in  13  places. 


1/4 

in  8  of  which  they  appeared  efficient,  4  fairly  so,  and  1,  not  so.  In  the  remain- 
ing 12  they  were  absent.  In  2  places,  some  instructions  were  given  along  the 
line  of  health  conservation.  In  1  place  a  sick  benefit  association  existed.  The 
work  was  very  largely  unskilled.  Work  quarters  were  hj'gienically  constructed 
in  11  places,  fairly  so  in  4  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  10.  Other  pro- 
cesses were  present  in  8  places,  such  as  the  baking  of  the  ware,  japanning, 
decorating,  electroplating,  painting  and  factory  processes.  The  age-group 
estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  40  years,  28 ;  under  40  years,  451,  of 
whom    about    5%    were    under   20    (mostly    girls). 

In  11  places  dust  appeared  to  be  a  negligible  hazard ;  in  4  places  there 
was  a  fair  amount  in  the  atmosphere,  while  in  the  remaining  10  it  was  bad. 
It  consisted,  variously,  of  lead  compounds,  fillers,  sand,  dried  spray,  and  paint. 
It  was  chiefly  produced  by  dry  sanding.  It  was  "kicked  up"  considerably  from 
the  floors.  In  many  places  no  attempts  whatever  were  made  to  control  it, 
although  here  and  there  respirators  were  supplied.  Especially  in  the  dry 
grinding  and  mixing  of  enamels  was  it  very  dusty.  Two  places  had  these 
processes  well  hooded.  Quarters  were  kept  clean  and  orderly  in  6  places, 
fairly,  so  in  12  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  7.  This  was  especially 
hazardous  where  lead  was  a  content*  of  the  enamels  used.  Dry  sweeping  and 
cleaning,  sometimes  during  work  hours,  were  also  noted.  In  3  places  the  work 
was  of  a  damp  character  from. water  and  sprays  used,  but  the  employes  wore 
rubber  boots,  and  were  quite  well  protected.  Natural  light  was  very  poor 
in  4  places.  General  room  ventilation  was  good  in  7  places,  fair  in  9,  and 
poor  in  the  remaining  9.  The  unhealthiness  of  the  atmosphere  was  due  chiefly 
to  contamination  with  fumes  and  vapors,  especially  where  ovens  were  in  the 
same  room,  while  stagnation  of  the  air  was  a  feature  in  several  places.  Heat 
was  no  factor  in  18  places,  but  it  was  a  fair  hazard  in  the  remaining  7,  and 
especially  so  in  1,  due  to  the  close  proximity  of  the  baking  oven.  In  some 
places  cold,  due  to  drafts,  and  having  to  go  to  outside  closets  or  privies,  and 
in  1  place,  inefficient  heating,  was  noted.  Fatigue  was  a  considerable  hazard 
in  some  places  and  negligible  in  others,  the  former  constituting,  however,  16 
of  the  total  places  investigated.  The  factors,  arranged  in  descending  order 
were:  hurrying  piece-work,  constant  standing  (still),  and,  much  less  fre- 
quently, laborious  work,  long  hours  for  the  character  of  the  work,  jarring 
processes,  pressure  against  the  body,  and  loud  noises.  The  workday  was  8 
hours  in  2  places,  8  to  9  hours  in  8  places,  9  to  10  hours  in  14  places  (and 
not  repotted  upon  in  the  remaining  1).  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  2 
places,  f  hour  in  2  places,  and  \  hour  in  21.  The  risk  of  contracting  com- 
municable diseases  was  determined  as  negligible  in  2  places,  a  fair  hazard  in 
13  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  10.  The  principal  reasons  for  this  were 
promiscuous  spitting  upon  dusty  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate 
washing  facilities,  poor  closets,  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  towels, 
wiping  rags  (unsterilized)  from  unknown  sources,  while  in  some  places  fre- 
quent trivial  injuries,  flying  particles,  and  the  short-intervaled  handling  of 
objects  by  different  workers  were  factors.  Among  the  poisons  used  in  the 
industry,  lead  was  not  as  frequently  encountered  as  might  be  surmised.  In 
only  5  places  was  it  certainly  used  (red  or  white  lead  as  a  rule).  The  enamel 
in  most  places  appeared  to  be  of  the  newer  preparations,  characterized  by 
quick  drying,  and  free  of  lead.  Other  poisons  necessarily  present  were 
turpentine   and   benzine    (naphtha),   while    amyl    acetate,    pickling    fumes,    anti- 


175 

mony  (?),  sulphur,  smoke  and  gas  fumes  were  all  noted.  The  risk  of 
poisoning  from  one  or  another  of  these  appeared  negligible  in  4  places,  a 
fair  hazard  in  9,  and  considerable  in  the  remaining  12.  A  monthly  medical 
examination  was  in  vogue  in  1  place.  The  methods  of  doing  the  work,  in 
which  a  large  amount  of  dust  or  nebulous  spray  was  produced  were  important 
factors  in  poisoning.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stimiilantism  was  con- 
sidered bad  in  3  places,  and  fairly  so  in  most  of  the  remaining,  due,  chiefly, 
to  the  poison  factor,  after  which  the  question  of  dust,  poor  ventilation  and 
fatigue  entered. 

The  general  appearance  of  enamelers  rated  good  in  11  places,  fair  in  12 
more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  2,  the  latter  including  a  total  of  30  persons. 
In  a  number  of  instances,  pale  and  anemic  looking  workers  were  seen.  The 
health  complaints  of  workers  were  the  breathing  of  fumes,  sprays  and  dust, 
the  frequent  failing  of  the  special  ventilation  systems  used,  and  subjective 
symptoms  of  the  effects  of  the  above  hazards.  In  a  number  of  places  dizziness 
was  a  frequent  complaint.  Investigators  reported  the  following  instances  of 
occupational  disease:  lead  poisoning,  4  positive,  and  1  tentative;  dermatitis 
from  naphtha,  1  .positive ;  while  there  was  considerable  additional  evidence 
of  the  effects  of  turpentine  and  benzine  fumes,  as  well  as  further  instances 
of  lead  poisoning. 

Comments.  —  Where  lead  is  used,  a  monthly  examination  of  all  exposed 
employes  should  be  made  by  a  physician.  Installation  of  hoods  and  vents, 
or  the  performing  of  the  work  within  enclosed  cupboards  or  boxes,  through 
which  the  hands  may  be  inserted,  and,  where  these  are  impractical,  the  insist- 
ence upon  the  wearing  of  respirators,  and  a  frequent  interchange  of  workers 
should  be  instituted.  Every  case  of  sickness  among  enamelers  should  be  in- 
vestigated by  a  factory  physician,  with  a  view  to  eliminating  the  cause  (not 
the  worker). 

JAPANNING. 

.A  japan  is  a  lustre-giving  substance  containing  resins  or  gum-resins, 
metallic  salts,  drying  oils,  and  volatile  liquids ;  or  (decorative  japan) 
asphaltum,  etc.,  and  lies  between  a  spirit  varnish  and  an  enamel.  Japanning 
is  a  process  closely  associated  with  enameling,  the  substances  being  applied  in 
much  the  same  way  and  baked.    , 

The  process  was  investigated  in  10  establishments,  in  6  cities,  and  employ- 
ed a  total  of  146  wage-earners,  89  of  whom  were  males  and  57  were  females. 
General  working  conditions,  type  of  workers,  retention,  health  appliances,  con- 
struction or  workrooms  and  the  presence  of  other  processes  did  not  differ 
materially   from  those  described  under  Enameling. 

The  following  hazards  were  considered  bad  in  the  number  of  places  men- 
tioned: dust,  1;  dirt  and  disorderliness,  2;  darkness,  1;  poor  ventilation,  3 
(and  in  5  others  cuily  fair)  ;  heat,  1 ;  fatigue,  5  (due  to  hurrying  piece-work, 
constant  standing  and  monotony)  ;  liability  to  communicable  diseases,  6  (the 
same  factors  as  under  Enameling)  ;  and  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism, 
a  fair  extent  in  most  places. 

Age-group  estimations  showed  86  over  40,  and  5  under  20,  the  remaining 
105  being  between  20  and  40  years.  The  poisons  used  in  the  process,  so  far 
as  could  be  learned,  were  turpentine,  benzine  (naphtha),  "japan,"  and  bronze. 
There  were  in  places  also  the  escape  of  gas  fumes  from  the  baking  ovens.  The 
liability  to  poisoning  was  considered  negligible  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  5  more, 


176 

but  considerable  in  the  remaining  3.  In  places  the  workers  dipped  their  arms 
up  to  the  elbows  in  the   solutions. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  averaged  good  in  6  places  and  fair 
in  the  remaining  4.  There  were  some  pale,  anemic  looking  individuals,  and 
others  who  seemed  below  par  in  health.  Complaints  were  not  frequent,  but  the 
effects  of  fumes  and  urinary  trouble  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  in- 
vestigators. At  one  place  one  man  had  quit  because  of  this  urinary  trouble. 
Comments. —  (See  Enameling)  The  tendency  of  many  workers  to  wash  their 
hands  in  benzine  was  noted  in  both  this  process  and  that  of  Enameling. 

BRONZING  AND  GILDING.  —  These  two  processes  were  frequently  seen 
in  connection  with  other'  decorative  work  in  many  industries.  Usually  females 
were  employed.  Very  thin  sheets  of  bronze  aluminum,  and  other  gilding 
materials  were  applied  or  stamped  on  with  a  "size",  consisting  of  thin  varnish 
or  a  similar  solvent,  while,  other  times,  these  gilds  were  brushed  on  from  a 
mixture  of  them  in  benzol,  acetone,  pyroxylin,  wood  alcohol,  amyl  acetate  or 
gasoline,  and  occasionally  ammonia,  or  were  sprayed  oh  (in  which  case  a  hood 
and  exhaust  were  used).  Again,  bronzing  or  gilding  machines,  equipped  with 
large  gas  burners,  were  usually  unvented,  and  a  source  of  deoxidation  and 
contamination  of  the  quarters  in  which  they  were  located.  None  of  these 
"bronzes"  were  analyzed  for  lead  or  arsenic  (which  they  sometimes  contain), 
but  no  case's  of  metallic  poisoning  were  discovered  among  the  few  workers  seen. 

LITHOGRAPHING. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  10  establishments,  in  5  cities,  and  in 
connection  with  the  following  industries  :  Printing  and  Publishing,  Copper,  Tin 
and  Sheet  Iron  Goods,  and  Signs  and  Advertising  Novelties.  Different  methods 
of  designing,  photographing,  etc.,  upon  stone,  zinc,  aluminum  and  other 
surfaces,  as  well  as  press  work,  are  here  included. 

There  were  a  total  of  539  employes  so  engaged,  of  whom  all  but  14  were 
males.  One  plant  was  exclusively  a  union  shop.  The  work  was  very  largely 
skilled,  the  type  of  workers  good,  and  they  appeared  to  remain  at  the  same 
places  of  work  to  a  large  extent.  There  were  no  benefit  organizations,  al- 
though in  1  place  instructions  along  health  lines  were  given.  There  were  no 
special  health  appliances  in  any  place.  The  general  construction  of  work 
quarters  was  good  in  5  places,  fair  in  2,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  3,  while 
other  processes  were  present  in  6  places,  such  as  printing,  stenciling,  engraving, 
embossing,  and  the  like.  There  were  a  total  of  50  workers  over  40  years  of 
age,  483  between  20  and  40,  and  6  under  20  years. 

Environmental  conditions  were  graded  as  follows :  a  fair  amount  of 
dust  in  6  places;  disorder  and  dirt  in  1;  in  2,  light  only  fair;  in  2,  quarters 
overly  warm;  and  in  8,  risk  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  from  the 
promiscuous  spitting  upon  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  washing 
facilities,  and  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  towels.  Fatigue  was  a 
fair  hazard  in  5  places,  due  to  constant  standing,  monotony,  piece-work,  eye- 
strain and  loud  noises  (from  presses).  Litho-engravers,  designers  and  artists 
had  the  same  hazards  as  elsewhere  described.  The  workday  was  from  81-  to  9 
hours  in  3  places,  and  from  9^  to  10  hours  in  7  places,  while  the  noon  recess 
was  1  hour  in  4  places,  |-  hour  in  1,  and  J  hour  in  the  remaining  5.  In  1  place 
a  night  shift  of  12  hours  was  maintained,  while  overtime  work  was  some 
feature  in  other  places.     The  general  ventilation  of  workrooms  was  good  in  3 


177 

places,  but  fair  to  bad  in  the  remaining  7,  due,  somewhat,  to  contamination 
from  gas,  fumes  and  vapors,  but,  mostly,  to  stagnation  of  the  air.  Occasionall}- 
pollution  from  city  smoke  in  the  quarters  of  upper  floors  was  frequent.  The 
chief  poisons  in  connection  with  the  process  were  found  to  be  the  various 
colors,  inks  and  greases  used  (but,  except  for  skin  affections,  the  risk  from 
these  sources  did  not  appear  to  be  great,  especially  for  the  class  of  workers 
employed),  turpentine  fumes,  benzine  and,  occasionally,  anilin  vised  in  cleaning, 
and  nitric  acid  in  spray  "cutting"  of  plates,  which  in  one  place  turned  that  part 
of  the  worker's  hair,  which  was  exposed,  red-brown  in  color.  The  risk  to  the 
workers  from  poisoning  appeared  to  be  negligible  in  6  places,  but  a  fair  hazard 
in  the  remaining  4.  Nauseating  odors  from  rosin,  inks,  and  fumes  were  marked 
in  some  places.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stiniulantism  was  principally 
a  question  of  the  depressing  influences  of  the  air  in  the  workrooms,  to  which 
the  poison   factor  should  be  added. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  all  places,  while  there 
were  no  special  complaints  made,  except  as  related  to  ventilation,  and  occasion- 
ally to  sanitary  inconveniences.  Comments. —  (See  Printing  —  Art  Work, 
Press  Rooms).  In  some  instances  it  would  seem  advisable  to  put  a  hood  and 
vent   over  the   lithographing  presses. 

UPHOLSTERING. 

This  process  is  an  auxiliary  one  in  certain  industries.  We  here  report 
upon  it  as  performed  in  3  automobile  plants,  6  carriage  plants,  and  in  5  furniture 
plants.  In  these  14  plants  there  were  found  to  be  employed  at  upholstering  a 
total  of  304  wage-earners,  of  whom  219  were  males  and  85  were  females. 
Apparently  modern  methods  were  the  rule  in  12  places.  There  were  no  labor 
organizations.  An  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  employed  in  12  places, 
fairly  so  in  1,  and  largely  non-English  speaking  foreigners  in  the  remaining  1. 
The  attitude  towards  employes  seemed  excellent  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  2, 
and  not  so  in  2.  Health  appliances  to  remove  or  confine  dust  were  absent  in  all 
places,  but  occasionally  respirators  were  furnished.  In  but  1  plant  were  the 
workers  protected  by  a  sick  benefit  organization.  All  workers  were  skilled  in 
2  places,  a  fair  percentage  were  so  in  3  places,  and  the  majority  unskilled  in  9 
places.  There  were  33  of  the  total  number  who  were  over  40  years  of  age, 
and  0  who  were  under  20  years.  Work  quarters  were  hygienically  constructed 
in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  5  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  In  half  of  the 
places  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  room,  such  as  painting  and 
varnishing,  packing,  and  various  factory  procedures.  Also  these  workers  were 
apt  to  be  doing  other  things  than  upholstering  at  times.  Retention  of  workers 
was  good  in  10  places,  fair  in  3,  and  not  so  in  1. 

The  work  was  so  performed  that  dust  was  a  negligible,  factor  in  4  places, 
a  fair  hazard  in  3,  and  more  so  in  the  remaining  7.  Its  composition  was  prin- 
cipally excelsior,  hair,  hay,  flax,  tow,  moss  and  vegetable  fiber.  Quarters  were 
clean  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  6,  and  not  so  in  4.  Humidity  was  no  factor.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  dust  tended  to  keep  the  air  excessively  dry  in  numbers  of 
places.  Light  was  good  in  12  places,  fair  in  1,  and  poor  in  1.  General  room 
ventilation  was  good  in  4  places,  fair  in  7,  and  poor  in  3.  Often  this  was 
influenced  by  paint  and  varnish  fumes  from  other  processes,  and  faulty  heating 
appliances.     Heat  is  not  a   feature  of  the  process,  but  inefficient  heating  was 

12      O.    D. 


178 

found  to  exist  in' 4  places.  Fatigue  was  no  hazard  in  5  places,  a  fair  hazard  in 
8  places,  and  considerable  in  1,  due  to  hurrying  piece-work,  monotony,  con- 
stant standing,  and  occasionally  some  eye  strain.  The  work  day  was  between 
8J  and  9  hours  in  7  plac^es,  and  9  to  10  hours  in  7  places;  the  noon  recess  was 
1  houi^  in  6  places,  f  of  an  hour  in  5,  and  ^  hour  in  4  places.  The  risk  of  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases  was  fair  in  5  places  and  bad  in  the  remaining 
9,  due  to  such  factors  as  crowded  quarters,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of 
cuspidors,  dry  sweeping,  common  cups,  inadequate  wash-places  and  closets,  lack 
of  physical  examination  and  medical  supervision.  Animal  infections  from  the 
materials  handled  were  not  found.  Poisons  are  not  used  in  the  process 
properly,  but  in  some  places  workers  were  exposed  to  paint,  varnish  and  wood 
alcohol,  needlessly.  Inducement  to  alcoholism  and  stimulants  was  negligible 
in  6  places,  fair  in  5,  and  bad  in  3,  due  to  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities, 
lack  of  interest  in  employes'  welfare,  the  irritating  effects  of  dusts  inhaled  and 
swallowed,  and  other   depressing  influences  as  mentioned. 

Appearances  of  the  workers  were  generally  good  in  12  places,  but  in  the 
remaining  2  several  were  observed  who  seemed  out  of  health.  The  complaints 
of  workers  were  the  irritating  effects  of  the  fine  dusts  breathed,  more  pro- 
nounced in  the  case  of  certain  mosses  and  hairs.  Cominents.  —  This  being  a 
dusty  occupation  of  difficult  control,  all  persons  entering  it  should  be  physically 
examined  first,  and  medically  supervised  at  intervals  thereafter,  and  should  use 
some  form  of  a  light  respirator  whenever  the  work  produces  sneezing  or 
coughing. 

According  to  the  U.  S.  Mortality  Statistics  Report  (1909)  there  were  327 
deaths  among  Upholsters,  of  which  number  65,  or  19.8%,  died  of  consumption. 

SEWING. 

The  process  considered  is  that  of  sewing  machine  operations,  although 
some  few  hand  workers  are  included  in  the  totals  of  employes  mentioned. 
The  process  was  investigated  in  26  establishments,  in  7  cities,  and  employed  a 
total  of  4,206  wage-earners,  of  whom  793  were  males,  and  3,412  were  females. 
The  different  industries  covered  were :  Clothing  (including  men's  and  women's 
garments,  mittens,  and  underwear).  Regalia,  Hats,  Mattresses,  Shoes  (cloth 
processes  only).  Mittens,  Fur  Goods,  Bags,  Coffins,  and  Automobiles  (trim- 
mings). 

Mortality  Statistics  including  pulmonary  tuberculosis  for  this  class  of 
workers  have  been  considered  under  the  subject  of  Clothing  and  Textile  Man- 
ufacturing   (Part   IV.). 

The  general  methods  pursued  were  about  the  same  everywhere,  irre- 
spective of  the  nature  of  the  goods  worked  upon.  Unions  existed  in  3  estab- 
lishments. The  employers'  interest  in  workers'  welfare  seemed  very  good  in 
18  establishments,; fair  in  6  more,  and  poor  in  2  places  (employing  a  total  of 
150  females).  The  general  type  of  workers  consisted  of  an  intelligent  class 
in  20  places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  while  ■  a  large  percentage  of  non-English 
speaking  foreigners  (girls)  j'were  employed  in  the  remaining  three.  •  Every 
endeavor  seemed  to  be  made  to  keep  the  same  employes  in  22  establishments, 
fairly  so  in  3  others,  while  1  establishment,  employing  a  total  of  about  350, 
paid  very  little  attention  to  the  personnel,  who  seemed  to  be  constantly  chang- 
ing.    Health  appliances,  consisting  of  mechanical  means  to  promote  ventilation, 


1/9 

were  good  in  5  places,  but  practically  absent  in  the  remaining  21.  Some  es- 
tablishments, in  addition,  had  excellent  rest  rooms,  change  rooms,  restaurants, 
lockers,  nurses  in  charge,  and  physicians  in  easy  call,  etc.  In  5  places  organized 
instructions  in  health  conservation  were  being  given.  In  3  places  sick  benefit 
organizations  existed.  About  half  of  the  total  workers  were  skilled  help.  The 
construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  17  places,  fair  in  3 
more,  and  not  good  in  the  remaining  6.  In  8  places  other  processes  were 
carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  with  sewing  machine  processes,  such  as  press- 
ing, cutting  and  hand-work.  Age  estimations  summed  up  to  show  that  there 
were  514  over  40  years  of  age,  and  3,691  under  that  age,  of  whom  probably  25% 
were  under  20  years. 


fe 

-^^ 

1 

Ei 

Fig.  47.    Model  Sewing  Room  in  an  Underwear  Factory. 

Note  air-agitators  of  the  draftless  type  over  the  workers'  heads  to  prevent 
stagnation,  —  the  chief  hazard  in  ventilation.  Also  swing  windows  for  use  in 
fair  weather.  Also  the  excellent  lighting  system,  arrangement  of  workers  side- 
wise  to  light,  chairs  with  backs,  etc.  Such  conditions  increase  production  be- 
cause they  insure  health  and  happiness. 


A  certain  amount  of  fiber  and  textile  dust  is  created  by  the  running  of 
cloth  through  sewing  machines,  but  in  17  places  this  appeared  to 'be  very  small 
in  amount,  while  in  the  remaining  the  character  of  the  goods  handled  seemed 
to  create  a  good  deal  of  dust,  enough  to  make  it  a  considerable  hazard  in  at 
least  6  places,  employing  a  total  of  about  775  workers.  It  was  composed  of 
hemp,  cotton,  wool,  leather,  polish,  hair  from  furs,  etc.,  according  to  tlie  nature 
of  the  goods  worked  upon.  In  some  places  the  workers  were  covered  with  this 
lint  and  dust  and  coughed  almost  constantly.  General  cleanliness  of  quarters^, 
which  included  the  frequent  cleaning  of  floors  to  collect  up  dust  and  lint,  was 


i8o 

good  in  17  places,  fair  in  6  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  3.  Dry  sweeping  or 
brushing  up  during  work  hours  was  a  fairlj-  common  observance.  Natural 
light  was  good  in  18  places,  fair  in  5  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  3,  one  of 
which  emploj-ed  about  225  workers.  In  a  considerable  number  of  places, 
artificial  lighting  was  b}-  naked  electric  lamps,  so  placed  that  they  were  ver}' 
damaging  to  the  eyesight  of  the  workers  because  of  the  direct  light  into  the 
eyes.  In  numbers  of  places,  workers  were  seated  facing  windows  and  other 
sources  of  light,  while  attention  was  given  to  seeing  that  light  arrangements 
were  perfect  in  other  places.  Light  window  shades  helped  materially.  The 
general  ventilation  of  working  quarters  was  good  in  15  places,  due  either  to 
general  spaciousness  of  quarters,  or  to  mechanical  means  of  promoting  the 
circulation  of  the  air ;  it  was  fair  in  6  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  5  (where 
a  total  of  atout  500  workers  were  employed).  Heating  arrangements  were 
usually  good,  although  there  was  a  general  tendency  to  keeping  room  tem- 
peratures too  high  in  the  winter  seasons,  which,  combined  with  the  excessive 
dryness  of  the  air  (see  discussion  upon  Humidity  in  Part  III.)  was  depressing 
and  predisposing  to  lung  troubles.  One  place,  employing  120  girls  up  next  to 
the  roof,  was  very  warm  and  close.  The  chief  hazard  in  this  work  is  fatigue. 
Practically  the  whole  gamut  of  fatigue  factors  were  found  to  be  active,  different 
ones  varj-ing  in  prevalence  in  different  places.  In  descending  order  of  im- 
portance they  were :  "bowed  over"  postures ;  hurrying  piece-work ;  evidences 
of  speeding  up;  monotonous  application  and  concentration;  eye-strain  (in  one 
large  place  51%  of  girls  wore  glasses;  probably  many  more  needed  them); 
loud  noises ;  long  hours ;  chairs  and  stools  without  backs ;  prolonged  straining 
movements;  jarring  and  jiggling  of  certain  forms  of  machines;  and  here  and 
there  laborious  work,  constant  standing,  and  using  the  body  to  press  constantly 
against  objects.  The  workday  was  found  to  'be  8  hours  in  1  place,  8  to  9 
hours  in  6  places,  and  from  9  to  10  hours  in  the  remaining  19.  The  noon  recess 
was  1  hour  in  12  places,  f  hour  in  1  place,  and  \  hour  in  the  remaining  13. 
Overtime  was  very  seldom  resorted  to  (laws  governing  the  workda}^  for 
females  prevent  this  beyond  the  10-hour  limit).  As  the  work  is  very  sedentary, 
most  of  the  muscles  and  nervous  mechanisms  of  the  body  are  out  of  function  a 
great  part  of  the  time,  so  that  autotoxemia,  due  to  sluggish  circulation,  is  an 
added  factor  to  the  fatigue  toxins  produced  in  the  parts  used.  In  other  words 
inactivity  is  a  very  potent  principle  in  the  diseases  of  this  class  of  workers.  In 
a  number  of  places  this  was  recognized,  and  work  variation  such  as  the  re- 
quiring of  employes  to  get  up  from  their  seats  and  secure  their  own  working 
materials  and  to  deliver  the  finished  goods  were  resorted  to.  (A  short  recess 
twice  a  day  would  help  immensely).  Furthermore,  in  some  places  gymnasium 
and  outdoor  recreative  features  were  supported.  The  liabilit}^  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  communicable  diseases  was  something  of  a  hazard  in  all  places,  although 
pretty  well  guarded  against,  in  at  least  6  establishments.  In  one  place  the 
whole  building  (5  floors)  was  fumigated  twice  a  month  with  sulphur  —  a  pipe 
system  distributing  the  fumes.  In  7  others,  also,  no  more  than  the  usual  risks 
of  indoor  workers  appeared  to  prevail.  In  the  remaining  13  the  hazards  seemed 
considerable.  The  principal  factors  were  the  presence  of  a  large  number  of 
persons  more  or  less  crowded  together  in  the  same  rooms,  the  use  of  common 
drinking  cups,  roller  towels,  dressing  rooms  without  individual  hooks  or 
lockers,  and  in  numbers  of  instances  inadequate  washing  facilities,  as  well  as 
other   sanitary   inconveniences.      In    a   number   of    places   where   men   were   em- 


ployed  in  large  numbers  there  was  considerable  spitting  upon  the  floors,  and  a 
general  absence  of  cuspidors.  The  short  intervalled  handling  of  objects  by 
different  persons  was  also  a  feature.  In  but  3  or  4  of  the  larger  places  were 
physical  examinations  required  of  new  employes,  while,  as  our  case  records 
show  elsewhere,  numbers  of  consumptive  workers  were  at  work  in  the  midst  of 
the  others  without  any  provisions  for  meeting  the  situation.  The  only  poison 
to  which  workers  were  found  subjected  was  the  use  of  benzine  or  naphtha  in 
association  with  other  processes  (cleaning,  cementing)  carried  on  in  the  same 
quarters.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  existed  in  the  prevalence 
of   two   causes   chiefly — fatigue    and    inactivity. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  contented,  happy,  and  on 
the  whole  fairly  healthy  in  14  establishments,  but  somewhat  less  so  in  all  these 
respects  in  the  remaining  12,  in  which  about  a  half  of  the  total  employed  were 
found.  Employes,  as  a  rule,  made  but  few  complaints.  Those  heard  consisted 
of  eye-strain,  headache,  backache,  lack  of  recess  intervals,  dust  (especially  in 
mattress  and  sack  or  bag  factories),  poor  ventilation,  "killing  pace"  at  which 
it  was  necessary  to  work  to  make  a  living,  coughs,  colds,  and  the  like.  It  is 
necessary  to  say  that  only  a  very  few  workers  were  interviewed  personally. 

Coimncnts.  —  As  the  consumption  rate  is  high  among  this  class  of  em- 
ployes, managements  should  give  special  attention  to  the  hazards  mentioned 
above,  and  make  arrangements  for  a  medical  supervision  which  will  provide, 
early  enough,  for  the  removal  and  proper  care  of  consumptive  persons,  and  a 
general  protection  of  the  -balance.  Physical  examination  of  new  employes 
should  be  insisted  upon,  including  the  eyes.  Nystagmus,  or  dancing  pupils,  is 
said  to  affect  one-fourth  of  all  sewing  machine  operators,  due  to  strain  of  the 
eyes  in  following  the  stitch  through  the  cloth., 

IRONING  AND  PRESSING. 

This  hand  process  requires  no  special  description.  It  was  investigated  in 
21  establishments,  representing  such  industries  as  Dry  Cleaning  and  Dyeing, 
Regalia,  Hats.  Textiles,  and  Clothing  Manufacture.  (The  process  in  laundries 
is  considered  elsewhere.)  There  were  570  employes  so  engaged,  of  whom  396 
were  males  and  174  females.  In  all  but  3  places  modern  methods  were  used. 
No  union  organizations  existed.  The  attitude  toward  employes  appeared  good 
in  18  places,  fair  in  2  and  not  so  in  1.  Although  a  large  percentage  of  foreign- 
ers were  employed,  they  were  of  an  intelligent  type  in  18  places,  and  remained 
well  at  the  work  in  the  same  number  of  places.  Health  appliances,  in  the  nature 
of  room  exhaust  fans,  air  agitators,  and  hoods  over  large  work,  were  good  in 
1  place,  fair  in  o,  and  absent  in  the  remaining.  In  but  1  plant  did  a  sick  benefit 
association  exist.  The  work  is  semi-skilled.  There  were  120  workers  over  40 
years  of  age,  433  between  20  and  40,  and  17  under  20.  The  construction  of 
work  rooms  was  hygienic  in  14  places,  fairly  so  in  5,  and  not  so  in  the  re- 
maining 2.  Other  processes  were  present  in  5  places,  such  as  sewings,  cutting, 
printing,  and  factory  work. 

Dust  was  no  feature  of  the  process.  Quarters  were  well  lighted  in  17 
places,  fairly  so  in  1,  and  not  so  in  3.  General  room  ventilation  was  good  in  8 
places,  fair  in  9,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  4,  due  principally  to  still,  "dead"  air, 
incomplete  oxidation  of  gas  burners  for  heating,  and  absence  of.  methods  to 
renew   the  air.     Heat  was  a   negligible   factor  in   13  places,   fairly   so  in  5,   and 


l82 

bad  in  the  remaining  3.  It  is  difficult  to  find  a  more  fatiguing  procedure  than 
hand  ironing  or  pressing  when  such  is  the  operation  constantly  pursued  day 
after  day.  The  number  of  persons  with  fatigue  neuroses,  particularly  affecting 
the  arm  used,  which  appear  at  dispensaries  and  hospitals  attest  to  this.  Often- 
times there  is  added  neuritis  and  partial  paralysis.  In  the  plants  investigated 
fatigue  was  a  bad  hazard  in  6,  fair  in  8,  and  about  negligible  in  the  remaining 
7.  The  chief  factors  were  hurrying  piecework,  monotony,  constant  standing, 
constant  strain,  stools  '(where  used)  without  backs,  continued  faulty  postures, 
jarring  processes,  and  constant  pressure  against  the  body.  The  workday  was 
8  hour.s  in  1  place,  8|-  to  9  in  11  places,  and  9^  to  10  in  9  places ;  the  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  9  places,  f  hour  in  2  places,  and  J  hour  in  10  places.  The 
liability  to  communicable  diseases  was  bad  in  6  places,  fair  in  12  and  negligible 
in  3,  due  principally  to  overcrowding  (irrespective  of  room  space),  absence  of 
lockers  or  clothes  rooms,  common  towels  and  cups,  poor  washing  facilities  and 
closets,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  the  handling  of  articles 
which,  in  some  places,  might  carry  infection.  There  seemed  to  be  a  rather 
doubtful  moral  tone  in  some  places  employing  both  sexes  together.  Medical 
supervision  was  good  in  3  places,  but  absent  in  the  balance.  The  liability  to 
poisoming  was  a  negligible  factor  in  17  places,  but  in  the  remaining  4  it  was 
fair  to  considerable.  The  dangers  were  escape  of  unburned  gas  fumes,  the 
use  of  gasoline  or  naphtha  in  the  same  quarters  (unventilated),  and,  in  1  place, 
of  wood  alcohol  which  workers  used,  even,  to  wash  their  hands.  The 
inducement  to  stimulantism'  was  in  direct  proportion  to  the  extent  of  the 
hazards  above  mentioned. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  to  good  in  15  places,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  6.  The  chief  complaints  of  workers  were  hot  work- 
rooms, gas  odors,  steam  and  dampness,  fatigue  effects,  rheumatism,  and 
"nervous  breakdowns".  Comments.  —  Outside  of  the  usual  ventilation  and 
sanitary  requirements,  considerable  thought  should  be  given  to  varying  this 
process  and  limiting  piecework,  speeding  up,  and  constant  standing. 

JUNK. 

The  workers  in  junk  sheds  and  warehouses  are  engaged  in  the  sorting  of 
waste,  rags,  paper  and  metal.  Occasionally  non-ferrous  metals  (especially  lead) 
are  melted  down,  much  as  in  brass  founding,  and  cast  into  ingots  or  pigs  to  be 
sold. 

Our  investigations  covered  25  establishments  (exclusive  of  paper  man- 
ufacturers)  located  in  5  cities  employing  350  wage-earners  divided  as  follows: 

No.  Estab- 

Process.                                                       lishments.    Males.  Females.     Total. 

Paper    and    Rag    Sorting 20            203  71              274 

Refining  Metals    4              33  33 

Waste  Mfg 1            158  10              168 

25  394  81  475 

Age-group  estimations  summed  up  50  males  and  26  females  over  40  years 
of  age.    There  were  a  few  tmdcr  20.    There  were  2  places,  including  the  waste 


i83 

Works,  which  had  impfoved  methods  for  handling  materials.  There  were  no 
unions.  The  attitude  toward  employes  seemed  bad  in  6  places,  and  but  fair  in  7 
more.  A  class  of  ignorant  foreigners  were  employed  in  17  places,  while  reten- 
tion at  the  work  seemed  poor  except  in  4  places.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of 
dust  removal  systems  locally  applied  and  hoods  with  exhausts  over  metal  pots, 
were  present  in  2  places,  but  in  1  of  these  very  inefficient.  There  were  no  in- 
structions or  health  placards  in  any  of  the  establishments  including  those  which 
brought  the  workers  in  contact  with  poisonous  metals  and  fumes.  None  of  the 
workers  were  industrially  insured  against  ill  health.  There  was  no  skill  re- 
quired in  the  processes.  Work  places  were  hygienically  constructed  in  2  instances 
only,  while  there  was  little  attempt  anywhere  to  separate  various  sub-processes. 

The  exposure  to  dust  was  a  bad  hazard  in  17  places,  its  source  being  the 
rags,  paper  and  metals  handled.  Quarters  were  very  dirty  and  disordered  in  19 
places,  while  a  fourth  of  the  places  were  practically  unprotected  from  the 
weather.  The  light  was  very  poor  where  the  workers  ■^ere  engaged  in  8  places. 
Confined  quarters  giving  poor  opportunity  for  ventilation  constituted  a  bad 
hazard  in  13  places,  and  fairly  so  in  3  more.  Heat  was  a  bad  hazard  in  1  place 
employing  10  men.  Chilling  from  winter  cold  was  a  hazard  to  the  workers  in  J 
of  the  places.  In  one  place  employing  17  men  and  women  the  only  heat  was 
from  unhooded  salamanders,  the  gas  from  which  filled  the  quarters.  Fatigue 
was  a  considerable  hazard  in  at  least  3  places  employing  girls,  due  to  absence  of 
seats,'  piece-work,  faulty  postures,  and  the  like.  In  1  place  3  females  were  seen 
seated  upon  the  floor,  there  being  no  chairs  nor  stools  provided.  The  workday 
was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  1  place  employing  12  persons,  of  whom  9  were 
females,  but  was  10  hours  or  longer  in  all  the  rest  where  reports  could  be  ob- 
tained. The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  5  places,  f  hour  in  1,  J  hour  in  10  places, 
and  no  regular  time  taken  in  the  balance.  How  much  overtime  was  put  in  could 
not  be  ascertained.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was 
great  in  18  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  negligible  in  1  more,  and  was  not  definitely 
reported  upon  in  the  remaining  5  places.  The  chief  hazards,  besides  the 
handling  of  the  materials,  were  inadequate  or  absent  wash-places  and  closets 
(occasionally  the  same  closet  was  used  by  both  sexes),  promiscuous  spitting, 
absence  of  cuspidors,  and  lack  of  any  medical  supervision.  Poisoning  was  a 
great  hazard  to  85  workmen  in  10  places  where  lead  and  soft  metal  alloys 
were  handled  and  smelted.  In  1  place  5  tons  of  lead  were  melted  at  a  time. 
The  likelihood  of  "brass  chills"  was  slightly  less  than  in  brass  foundries. 
The  work  was  done  by  ignorant  workers  who  received  no  instructions  as  to 
dangers,  were  generally  without  washing  facilities,  and  ate  their  lunches  while 
at  work.  Hoods  to  remove  fumes  from  melting  pots  were  absent  in  all  except 
1  place,  but  a  few  of  the  places  had  the  melting  pots  outdoors.  The  industrial 
inducement  to  stimulantism  was  of  course  great  in  all  places  where  dust,  de- 
pressing surroundings,  poor  heating  arrangements  and  poisons  existed  along 
with  the  absence  or  inadequacy  of  drinking  water  facilities.  There  is  a  ques- 
tion also  of  the  propriety  of  employing  both  males  and  females  together  in  the 
sorting  of  old  rags,  etc. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  to  good  in  10  of  the  plants 
(none,  however,  engaged  in  handling  metals).  The  workers,  as  a  rule,  were 
very  reticent  about  making  complaints,  but  the  ill  effects  of  dust,  insanitary 
quarters  and  long  hours  were  complained  of  by  them.  Our  investigators  dis- 
covered 4  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in  2  smelting  plants,  2  cases  of  tuberculosis. 


184 

and   the   report   that  several   cases    of   lockjaw   had   come   from    1   of   the   large 
plants. 

Comments.  —  Where  metal  melting  pots  are  placed  indoors  they  should 
be  properly  hooded  and  vented.  The  grinding  and  beating  of  rags  and  paper 
should  have  dust  confining  or  collecting  systems.  (These  were  observed  in  1 
place.)  We  were  unable  to  make  an  intensive  study  of  the  possibility  of  in- 
fectious and  contagious  diseases  among  the  workers  who  were  handling  rags 
and  materials  collected  from  all  sorts  of  places,  but  in  this  connection  an  out- 
break of  smallpox  in  a  manufacturing  establishment  was  laid  to  the  use  of  old 
rags  bought  for  cleaning  machinery.  Of  all  workers  these  should  have  the 
best  of  sanitary  conveniences  as  well  as  first-aid  remedies  for  cuts,  punctured 
wounds,  burns  and  the  like. 


SPECIAL  PROCESSES. 


PRINTING.- — COMPOSING    ROOMS    AND    GENERAL    JOB    WORK. 

This  was  invesitgated  in  26  establishments,  in  12  of  which  it  was  more  or 
less  of  an  auxiliary  feature.  The  lines  of  business  were  printing  and  publish- 
ing, manufacture  of  boxes,  art,  glass,  painting  and  varnishing,  paper  goods, 
matches  and  electrotyping.  In  these  places  there  were  employed  a  total  of 
513  wage-earners   of   whom  385   were  males   and   128  were    females.     Methods 


Fig.  48.     Proper  Arr.^ngement  of  Workman  to  Light. 

Xote    shaded    lamps,    eyeshield,    also    convenient    cuspidor.      Many    less    skilled 

workers  do  just  as  tedious  eyework  under  exactly  opposite  conditions. 

were  considered  modern  in  It;  places,  fairly  so  in  5  and  crude  in  ■">.  Labor 
organization  existed  in  !)  places.  The  attitude  toward  employes  was  good  in 
20,  fair  in  4.  and  Ijad  in  2  places.  The  employes  were  an  intelligent  type  in 
20  places  and  the  majority  only  fairly  so  in  the  remaining  (i.  Employes  were 
well  retained  in  21,  fairly  so  in  1  and  not  so  in  4  places.  Instructions  along 
health  lines  in  the  form  of  placards  were  found  posted  al)out,  in   4  places.     In 

185 


i86 

none  of  the  places  were  benefit  organizations  existing  (union  printers  ex- 
cepted). The  workers  were  all  skilled  in  13  places,  fairly  so  in  7  more  and 
largely  unskilled  in  the  remaining  6.  There  were  a  total  of  67  employes  over 
40  years  of  age,  424  between  20  and  40  and  22  under  20.  Work  rooms  were 
hygienically  constructed  in  13  places,  fairly  so  in  4  and  bad  in  9.  Other 
processes  in  the  job  printing  room  were  numerous  and  found  to  exist  in  about  s 
of  the  places. 

Dust  was  a  fair  hazard  in  10  places,  bad  in  1  and  negligible  in  the  re- 
maining. Quarters  were  kept  clean  in  14,  fairly  so  in  9  and  not  so  in  3.  Dry 
sweeping  and  dusting  of  fonts  with  an  air  blast  are  pernicious.  Cold  and 
dampness,  due  to  inefficient  heating,  were  found  to  exist  in  4  places.  Light 
was  good  in  17  places,  fair  in  4  and  poor  in  the  remaining  5.  General  room 
ventilaiion  was  only  fair  in  10  places  and  bad  in  7  more.  Fatigue  seemed  ai 
negligible  factor  in  8  places,  fair  in  10  and  bad  in  the  remaining  8,  due,  prin- 
cipally, to  hurrying  piece-work,  monotony,  constant  standing,  strain,  chairs  and 
stools  without  backs,  faulty  postures  and  in  some  cases  jarring  processes  and 
loud  noises.  Eyestrain  and  myopia  are  special  hazards  of  the  printer  and  every 
such  worker  should  be  assured  of  the  condition  of  his  eyes  for  such  work. 
The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  13  places,  8J  to  9  in  5  places,  and  9  to 
10  in  8  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  3  places,  45  minutes  in  7  and  ^ 
hour  in  16.  Overtime  was  rarely  done..  The  risk  of  contracting  communicable 
diseases  was  negligible  in  10  places,  fair  in  6  and  considerable  in  the  re- 
maining 10,  due,  principally,  to  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors, 
inadequate  washing  facilities  and  closets,  common  cups  and  towels  and  less 
often  to  crowding,  common  handling  of  objects,  and  trivial  injuries.  Adequate 
medical  supervision  was  universally  absent.  While  the  risk  of  poisoning  was 
largely  a  question  of  personal  hygiene  (avoiding  dust  and  holding  the  type  in 
the  mouth),  still  in  §  of  the  places  certain  conditions  favored  poisoning; 
such  as,  lack  of  instruction,  workers'  ignorance,  inadequate  washing  places, 
eating  while  at  work  and  in  the  workroom,  absence  of  lockers,  dry  sweeping, 
and  lack  of  ventilation  for  fume-producing  processes.  The  poisons  noted  wert 
lead,  analin  oil,  benzine,  carbon  dioxide,  fuel  gas,  type  dust  (which  also  contains 
antimony),  bronze  powders  and  paraffin  fumes.  An  industrial  inducement  to 
alcoholism  and  stimulants  was  a  fair  hazard  in  18  places,  especially  so  in  5,  due  to 
inadequate  drinking  water  facilities  combined  with  the  depressing  influences 
above  mentioned. 

The  general  appearances  of  employes  were  good  in  19  places,  while  in  7 
a  certain  number  of  pale,  sickly  and  presenile  persons  were  seen.  The  chief 
complaints  of  workers  were  poor  room  ventilation,  fumes,  type-dust,  risk  of 
lead  poisoning,  and  working  along  with  supposedly  tuberculous  fellow-workers. 
One  case  of  lead  poisoning  was  seen,,  and  another  case  of  the  same  complaint 
which  was  tentative.  Lead  poisoning  which  occurs  in  this  process  is  usually 
of  very  slow  progressive  character,  producing  hardened  arteries,  'enlarged 
heart  and  apoplectic  strokes.  Comments.  —  While  6  plants  visited  were  models 
in  sanitation  and  ventilation,  the  majority  need  attention  given  to  still,  "dead" 
air,  especially  in  which  free  gas  flames  are  present.  Especially,  is  a  vacuum 
cleaner  to  be  used  in  type-font  rooms.  The  hazards  mentioned  above  suggest 
other  features  to  be  remediedt 


i87 


PRINTING. 


TYPE   MACHINES. 


This  class  of  procedure  includes  all  processes  in  which  type  metal  is 
melted  and  used,  such  as  linotyping,  monotyping,  and  stereotyping.  (Electro- 
typing  is  practically  identical  with  electroplating,  q.v.)  These  are  here  re- 
ported upon  as  the  results  of  our  investigation  in  15  plants.  The  total  wage- 
earners  so  employed  was  361,  of  whom  348  were  males  and  13  were  females. 
Seven  of  the  places  were  union  shops.  The  general  attitude  toward  employes 
was  good  in  12  places,  and  at  least  fair  in  the  remaining.     The  workers  were 


Fig.  49.  Linotype  Room.  Showing  System  Witn  Connections  to  Each 
Metal  Pot  and  Bukner.  The  Whole  System  is  Connected  to  a  Tall 
Chimney  Stack.  In  Addition  the  Room  Has  Two  Large  Exhaust 
Fans -TO  Promote  Air  Circulation. 


of  intelligent  type  in  all  places,  except  here  and  there  a  few  non-English 
speaking  laborers.  Retention  of  workers  was  good  in  12  places,  fair  in  1,  and 
not  so  in  2.  Health  appliances,  such  as  hoods  and  stacks  over  metal  pots, 
furnaces  and  burners,  were  good  in  5  places,  fair  in  2,  and  absent  in  the 
balance.  In  3  places  there  were  sick  benefit  associations.  In  12  places  the 
mass  of  the  workers  were  skilled,  and  in  the  remaining,  unskilled.  There  were 
52  employes  over  40  years  of  age,  295  between  20  and  40,  and  14  under  20'.     The 


workrooms  were  hj'gienically  constructed  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  4,  and  not  so 
in  5.  In  4  places,  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters,  such 
as   press   work,   hand   type-setting,   etc. 

Except  in  electrotyping,  dust  is  not  a  feature  of  the  process,  although 
in  several  places  there  was  some  dust  in  the  air.  Dirt  and  waste  accumulations 
were  well  taken  care  of  in  but  2  places,  and  were  not  a  bad  hazard  at  any 
place.  Inasmuch  as  lead  is  in  high  percentage  in  the  tj'pe  metal  used,  greater 
cleanliness  should  have  been  the  rule  in  13  places.  Dampness  is  not  a  feature 
of  the  process.  Light  was  good  in  all  but  2  places,  where  it  was  poor.  General 
room  ventilation  was  good  in  onl}-  1  place  (which  had  all  machines  piped  and 
exhaust  fans  in  the  windows,  while  in  6  places  it  was  decidedly  bad.  The 
chief  features  were  the  escape  of  gases  and  fumes  from  the  hot  processes, 
absence  of  air-agitators  and  means  of  renewing  the  air.     Heat  was  a  negligible 


Fig.  50.     Recoverixg   Type   Metal. 

This   melting  process   should  always  be   done  in  a  separate   room. — Type  metal 

pot  covered  and  fairly  well  flued. 


factor  in  7  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  7,  and  bad  in  1.  Fatigne  was  not  found  to 
be  any  particular  hazard  any  place.  The  work  day  was  8  hours  in  11  places, 
and  from  8;}  to  10  hours  in  the  other  4.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  4 
places,  f  hour  in  5  places,  and  h;  hour  in  6.  The  risk  of  contracting  com- 
iniinicable  diseases  was  negligible  in  2  places,  fair  in  G,  and  considerable  in  7, 
due,  principally,  to  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  wash- 
places  and  closets,  common  towels  and  cups,  occasionally  crowding  of  workers 
together,  with  lack  of  medical  supervision.  Industrial  poisoning  was  quite 
negligible  in  4  places,  a  fair  hazard  in  4,  and  a  considerable  hazard  in  7,  due, 
chiefly  to  the  absence  of  hoods  and  vent  pipes  over  metal  pots,  and  especialh' 
over  gas  burners  and  furnaces;  also  to  absence  of  proper  washing  facilities.  A 
chief  feature  was  the  habit  which  some  workers  had  of  continuallj'  stirring  up 
the    surface    of    the    molten    metal    by    dropping    in    slugs    and    waste    metal    at 


i89 

frequent  intervals,  thus  permitting  the  fine  sub-oxide  of  lead  dust,  as  well  as 
antimony  vapors,  to  .escape.  Industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  and  stimulants 
was  a  fair  hazard  in  10  places,  due,  principally,  to  the  depressing"  mfluences 
cited    above,    rather   than    drinking   water    facilities. 

In  9  places,  including  most  of  the  larger  ones,  workers  were  healthy 
looking.  In  4  the  majority  were  only  fairly  so,  and  in  2  quite  a  number  were 
seen  who  did  not  appear  well.  Their  chief  complaints  were  the  fumes,  ab- 
sence of  hoods  and  poor  room  ventilation.  One  case  of  chronic  iplumbism  was 
seen,  and  1  case  of  antimony  poisoning,  causing  dermatitis  as  well  as  bron- 
chitis. Comments.  —  The  better  places  have  melting  pots  for  scrap  metals  in 
a  room  separated  from  other  workers.  Also,  over  the  type-metal  pot,  heating 
apparatus  and  gas  flame  is  a  hood  and  stack  passing  to  the  exterior.  In 
some  places  the  stack  was  found  to  extend  only  a  few  feet  above  the  machine, 
whence  its  fumes  were  given  ofif  to  the  air  of  the  room. 

PRINTING.  —  PRESS   ROOM    WORK. 

This  process  is  here  reported  upon  as  investigated  in  13  plants,  all  print- 
ing and  publishing  establishments, 'employing  a  total  of  392,  of  whom  360  were 
males,  and  32  were  females.  Four  plants  were  unionized.  The  general  attitude 
towards  employes  seemed  good  in  12,  and  at  least  fair  in  the  1  remaining  place. 
The  workers  were  uniformly  of  an  intelligent  type.  Retention  seemed  good  in 
all  places.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  and  flues  for  drawing  ofif 
escaping  gas  fumes  in  drying  freshly  printed  work  were  present  and  efficient 
in  2  places.  A  sick  benefit  association  existed  in  1  place.  The  majority  of  the 
workers  were  skilled  in  3  places,  and  largely  unskilled  in  1  only.  There  were 
35  employes  over  40  years  of  age,  327  between  20  and  40,  and  38  tinder  20. 
The  press-room  was  hygienically  constructed  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  3,  and 
not  so  in  3.     Other  processes  were  usually  absent  in  the  press-room. 

A  slight  amount'  of  dtist  was  in  the  air  in  the  majority  of  places. 
Cleanliness  was  excellent  in  3  and  fair  in  the  remaining  10.  Dampne^ss,  'be- 
cause of  poor  location,  was  a  fair  hazard  in  4  places.  Light  was  good  in  8 
places,  fair  in  3,  and  poor  in  2  places.  General  room  ventilation  was  excellent 
in  2  places,  fair  to  good  in  7,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  4,  due  to  lack  of 
means  to  keep  the  air  in  motion,  ingress  of  city  smoke,  ink  odors,  and  gas 
fumes  from  driers.  Heat  was  negligible  in  5,  fair  in  7,  and  bad  in  1  place, 
due  to  unflued  gas-burners.  Fatigue  was  not  much  of  a  feature,  although  con- 
stant standing,  awkward  postures,  and  a  good  deal  of  noise  were  common. 
The  workday  was  8  hours  in  9  places,  and  from  8-]  to  10  hours  in  the  remain- 
ing 4.  Some  overtime  was  the  feature  of  several  places,  while  night  work  and 
night  shifts,  in  the  case  of  large  dailies,  were,  of  course,  the  rule.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  1  place,  f  hour  in  5,  and  J  hour  in  7.  The  risk  of  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases  was  negligible  in  5,  fair  in  5,  and  bad  in  3 
places,  due,  chiefly,  to  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate 
wash-places  and  closets,  and  common  drinking  cups.  Industrial  poisoning  was 
negligible  in  most  places ;  the  chief  danger  was  in  cleaning  ofif  rolls  with  com- 
pounds rich  in  anilin  oil,  to  which  our  attention  has  been  called  several  times. 
The  workmen  concerned  were  found  unconscious  with  the  features  very  dark 
colored,  and  only  revived  after  hours  of  resuscitating  efforts.  P'ree-flame  gas 
burners  and  benzine  fumes  were  other  air-contaminators.     Industrial  stimulajit- 


\        190 

ism  was  more  or  less  incited  in  half  of  the  places,  chiefly  because  of  the  de- 
pressing influences  of  poor  room  ventilation. 

In  10  places  all  workers  looked  healthy,  while  in  the  remaining  3,  several 
appeared  to  be  sickly.  No  complaints  were  made  by  workmen,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  odors  of  gas  and  of  inks  occasionally.  Comments.  — -  Outside  of 
the  general  features  above  mentioned,  the  escape  of  fumes  and  gases  should  be 
prevented  by  good  suction  flues  at  certain  points,  and  precautions  used  in 
regard  to  substances  employed  in  the  cleaning  of  rolls. 

PRINTING.  —  BINDING     ROOM      PROCESSES. 

These  were  investigated  in  6  establishments.  The  total  persons  so  en- 
gaged was  214,  of  whom  129  were  males  and  85  were  females.  There  were 
no  labor  unions.  The  workers  were  of  an  intelligent  class  in  all  places  and 
retention  seemed  good  ever3'where.  There  were  no  unions  in  the  places  in- 
vestigated. There  were  no  sick  benefit  associations.  The  work  did  not  re- 
quire much  skill.  There  were  a  total  of  20  persons  over  40'  years  of  age,  150 
between  20  and  40,  and  33  below  20.  Work  rooms  were  hygienically  arranged 
in  5  places,  and  not  so  in  1.  Other  processes  of  minor  health  significance  were 
also   carried  on   in  most   of   the  binding   rooms   visited. 

Dust  was  present  enough  to  constitute  a  fair  hazard  in  4  places.  One 
place  was  poorly  lighted.  Room  ventilation  was  excellent  in  1  place,  fair  in  8, 
and  bad  in  2.  Heat  was  considerable  in  1  place,  and  a  fair  hazard  in  2  others. 
Inefficient  heating  with  alternating  heat  and  cold  exposures  were  present  in  1 
place.  Fatigue  was  only  a  nominal  hazard,  although  heat,  work,  monotony 
and  constant  standing  were'  features  in  some  places.  However, 'the  hours  were 
good.  The  work  day  was  8  hours  in  3  places,  8i'  in  1,  and  9  in  2.  The  noon 
recess  was  J  hour  in  3  places,  %  hour  in  2  places,  and  1  hour  in  1.  .  The  risk 
of  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  excellently  provided  against  in  3 
places,  but  fair  to  bad  in  the  remaining  3,  due,  principally,  to  promiscuous 
spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  washing  facilities  and  closets,  the 
use  of  common  towfels  and  cups,  the  same  toilets  for  both  sexes,  and  the  lack 
of  medical  supervision.  The  use  of  poisons  was  no  factor  in  the  process, 
although  occasionally  shellacs  dissolved  in  wood  alcohol  were  reported.  The 
inducement  to  industrial  alcoholism  and  stimulants  constituted  only  a  fair 
hazard  in  some  of  the  places,  due  to  the  combination  of  some  of  the  depress- 
ing influences  above  cited. 

The  general  appearances  of  workers  in  this  process  were  good  in  all 
places,  although  in  1  place  a  worker  was  said  to  be  at  home  on  account  of 
consumption.  Coviments.  —  This  part  of  the  printing  business  is  practically  a 
general  factory  process  with  no  hazard  peculiar  to  it.  The  location  upon  upper 
floors  where  city  smoke  invaded  the  quarters  was  a  complaint  in  3  places, 
making  it  necessary  to  keep  windows  closed.  Fans  or  air  agitators  in  the  rooms 
would   help   considerably  to   invigorate   the   workers. 

PRINTING. — -ART     WORK,     HALF     TONES,     ZINC     ETCHING,     ETC. 

The  processes  included  here  are  designing,  artist's  work,  aerographing, 
photo-engraving,  etching,  vignetting,  transfer  work  (decalcomania),  graining, 
stippling  and  sketching.  These  processes  were  investigated  in  6  plants  mak- 
ing such  work  their  sole  specialties,  and  employing  a  total  of  157  workers,  of 


191 

whom  2  were  females.  Also  one  electrotype  plant  had  37  workers  (all  males) 
engaged  in  the  process  here  named.  Similar  lines  of  work  are  also  reported 
under  special  industries  (see  Pottery,  etc.).  The  workers  were  of  necessity 
of  good  intelligence,  yet  the  attitude  toward  them  in  2  places  seemed  rather  bad. 
There  were  no  health  instructions,  placards,  or  special  appliances,  although 
precautions  were  ordinarily  good.  There  were  32  over  40  years  of  age,  128 
between  20  and  40,  and  2  under  20.  The  construction  of  work  rooms  was 
excellent  in  5  places,  and  bad  in  1.  Other  processes,  such  as  litho-transferring 
and  stone  work,  were  also  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  in  3  places.  Dust, 
dirt,  and  dampnesSj  were  fair  hazards  in  1  place.  In  2  places  the  room  ventila- 
tion was  bad  and  the  air  pungent  with  turpentine,  electroplating,  and  various 
chemical  fumes.  Fatigue  was  no  factor,  except  that  eyestrain  might  ensue 
from  the  arc -lamp  reflections  in  long  exposures^  in  the  photography  branch. 
Inactivity  was  a  hazard,  however,  to  all  the  sedentary  workers  (artists,  de- 
signers, wood  and  steel  engravers).  The  liability  to  communicahle  diseases 
was  usually  slight,  but  in  1  place  there  was  promiscuous  spitting,  the  absence 
of  cuspidors,  inadequate  washing  facilities  and  closets,  which,  with  the  use  of 
common   towels   and   dry   sweeping,   constituted   considerable   hazard. 

Many  poisons  were  used  in  the  various  sub-processes  named.  The  artists 
were  liable  to  lead,  arsenic  and  chrome  poisoning  from  the  habit  of  tipping  the 
brushes  in  the  lips  and  especially  from  the  aerographing  work.  Often  their 
faces  were  within  8  to  14  inches  of  their  work  and  in  the  field  of  the  spray. 
In  some  instances  one  could  distinguish  the  artists  from  the  designers  by  the 
pallor  -on  the  faces  of  the  former  (lead  poisoning  (?)).  The  photographers) 
handled  potassium  cyanid  in  concentrated  solutions  (both  in  and  out  of  the 
dark  rooms),  also  corrosive  sublimate,  iodine,  silver  nitrate,  copper  sulphate, 
and  metol,  from  all  of  which  they  complained  of  skin  eruptions,  ulcers,  pig- 
mentations and  dermatitis.  Precautions  were  usually  well  observed.  Lots  of 
running  water  was  usually  depended  upon  to  prevent  skin  effects.  The  photo- 
engravers  came  in  contact  with  benzol  in  dissolving  rubber  films,  alcohol  and 
ether  in  collodion  films,  strong  acetic  acid  in  removing  films,  ammonium 
dichromate  and  gas  fumes  in  sensitizing  the  copper  plates,  and  ferric  chloride 
in  etching;  also  nitric  acid  fumes  from  the  open  rocking  trays,  as  well  as 
fusion  products  in  zinc  etching.  There  were  no  risks  in  routing  and  blocking, 
except  in  the  case  of  electrotypes  which  are  mounted  on  lead  backs.  Vignetters 
used  fefric  chloride  as  the  etcher  which,  in  bulk  form,  contained  enough  free 
hydrochloric  acid  to  produce  some  skin  irritation  if  used  carelessly.  Proving 
is  the  same  as  Printing  Press  Work  (q.  v.)  Skin  eruptions,  nose  and  throat 
irritations  and  bronchitis  were  the  chief  complaints. 

Comments.  —  Placards  concerning  the  poisons  used,  labels  on  all  poisonous 
materials,  and  ventilation  in  small  rooms,  would  do  away  with  all  poisoning 
dangers,  providing  personal  care  (also  in  aerographing)  were  well  observed. 
The  use  of  rubber  gloves  is  said  to  be  impractical. 

Cases  of  appreciated  poisoning  in  the  industry  are  rare  as  is  shown  in 
the  Report  of  the  15th  Annual  Convention  of  the  International  Photo- 
engravers  Union,  1914.  Out  of  42  locals  (about  half  of  the  total  in  the  union 
and  probably  representing  the  great  majority  of  the  workers)  which  responded 
to  a  request  on  the  part  of  the  officers  for  information  upon -"Members  in- 
capacitated  for  work  by  accidents   from   machinery,   chemicals,  gradual  pojson- 


192 

ing,    loss    of    weight,    or    other    disabilities    incurred    in    the    pursuit    of    photo- 
engraving", 34  locals,  reported  no  cases,  while  8  reported  as  follows ; 

Bichromate  poisoning 5  cases 

Cyanide  poisoning   1  case 

Accidents  (routers  and  blockers)    9  cases 

Blood  poisoning  (laid  to  zinc  in  a  cut) 1  case 

Gradual  loss  of  eyesight  (Finishing) 1  case 

Nervous  Breakdown   1  case 

Total     18  cases 

On  the  other  hand,  that  some  malignant  factor  (chronic  poisoning  ?  )  is 
at  work  among  photo-engravers  is  shown  by  the  enormous  death  rate  from  tuber- 
culosis and  degenerative  diseases  :  of  23  deaths  in  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 
1914,  9  were  from  tuberculosis,  7  from  degenerative  diseases,  1  from  accidental 
poisoning,  1  from  erysipelas,  1  from  intestinal  obstruction,  and  4  from  accidents 
and  injuries.  ■ — Furthermore  (p.  45,  of  above  mentioned  Report),  "A  review  of 
our  records  since  1903  discloses  the  fact  that  there  have  been  217  deaths.  Out  of 
these  217  deaths,  88  were  due  to  tuberculosis  —  very  nearly  41  per  cent"  (Italics 
are  ours.) 

LAUNDRY, LISTING,    SORTING    AND    MARKING. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  7  places  employing  a  total  of  142  employes, 
14  of  whom  were  males  and  128  females.  Of  the  total  number,  134  were  between 
20  and  40  years  of  age.  The  health-hazards  were  exposure  to  hiiinidky  and 
dampness  (due  to  other  processes)  in  4  places;  dark,  close  and  unzrutilated 
quarters  in  3  places;  standing  and  monotonous  character  of  the  work,  and 
nauseating  odors  from  soiled  clothing.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  com- 
municable  diseases  from  the  handling  of  soiled  clothing  and  linen  is  of  course 
present,  but  is  a  much  disputed  point  in  actual  fact.  In  this  connection  it  will 
first  be  necessary  to  have  sick  records  kept  of  at  least  several  hundred  of  such 
employes  over  at  least  a  j^ear's  time  before  conclusions  can  be  reached.  On  the 
other  hand,  eating  in  the  work  room,  meagre  washing  facilities,  the  use  of  com- 
mon towels  and  common  drinking  cups,  were  features  in  3  of  the  7  places.  The 
general  character  of  the  work  also  would  appear  to  make  it  inadvisable  to  em- 
ploy both  males  and  females  at  it  together.  The  appearance  of  the  workers  was 
generally  good  in  2  places,  and  fair  only  in  the  remaining  5  places.  The  workers 
made  no  complaints. 

LAUNDRY. WASHING. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  19  laundries,  all  of  the  character  using 
machinery  to  a  large  extent.  It  was  also  investigated  in  such  places  as  dry 
cleaning  establishments,  and  in  some  large  firms  who  performed  their^own  laun- 
dry work  —  the  general  feattires  being  similar  to  what  is  here  described.  It  is 
recognized  that  some  work  must  necessarily  be  done  by  hand.  The  total  number 
of  employes  was  241,  of  whom  118  were  males  and  123  were  females.  For  the 
work  undertaken  the  methods  were  modern  in  12  places,  fairly  so  in  3,  and  not  so 
in  the  remaining  4.  No  imion  organizations  existed.  The  general  attitude  to- 
wards employes  was  good  in  11  places,  fair  in  6,  and  poor  in  2.  Employes  were 
of  an  intelligent  type  in  13  places,  fairly  so  in  4  nioi'e,  and  ignorant  foreigners  in 


193 

the  remain  Jig  2.  Retention  seemed  good  in  13  places,  fairly  so  in  3,  and  not  so 
in  the  remaining  3.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  exhaust  apparatus  over 
operations,  and,  when  needed,  special  room  ventilation  apparatus,  were  fair  to 
good  in  11  places,  and  absent  in  the  remaining  8.  In  4  places  health  placards,  etc., 
were  found  present.  In  no  places  were  there  sick  benefit  organizations.  The 
construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  10  places,  fair  in  2,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  7.  Other  processes  than  washing  were  present  in  8 
places.  The  work  was  unskilled.  There  were  found  to  be  2  employes  over  40 
years  of  age,  214  between  20  and  40,  and  25  under  20. 

Uncleanly  quarters  were  noted  in  5  places,  and  especially  so  in  2.  General 
room  humidity,  wet  floors,  and  steam,  were  negligible  factors  in  4  places,  fairly 
so  in  3,  and  bad  in  the  12  remaining.  In  some  of  these,  attempts  made  to  better 
the  conditions  were  quite  inefficient.  Light  was  good  in  14  and  bad  in  5  places. 
The  workroom  ventilation  was  good  in  5  places,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining 
14.  Several  depended  solely  upon  windows  for  ventilation.  Heat  was  no 
hazard  in  9  places,  fairly  so  in  9  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  1.  In  some 
.places  it  ranged  from  80  to  90  degrees,  which,  combined  with  humidity,  rendered 
it  especially  deleterious.  Washing  facilities,  such  as  shower  baths,  were  absent 
in  all  but  2  places,  although  other  types  were  good  in  7  places,  fair  in  7,  and 
poor  in  the  remaining.  Fatigue  was  some  factor  and  due  principally  to 
monotony,  hurrying,  constant  standing,  faulty  postures  and  constant  rapid  move- 
ments. In  some  places  were  excellent  rest  rooms  and  lunch  rooms  where  coffee 
was  furnished  at  the  noon  hour.  The  workday  was  8-2-  hours  in  1  place,  and  from 
9  to  10  in  the  balance.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  5  places  and  ^  hour 
in  the  remaining  14.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases 
was  negligible  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  8  others,  and  considerable  in  4,  due  to 
such  features  as  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  use  of  common 
towels  and  drinking  cups,  inadequate  wash  places,  poor  toilets,  work  clothes 
hanging  in  the  same  room,  and  the  absence  of  medical  supervision  to  keep  out 
frail  and  diseased  workers.  Poisoning,  due  to  the  effects  of  bleaching  powder 
and  of  sodium  carbonate,  appeared  some  risk  in  a  very  few  places,  although 
no  cases  were  found.  Bleaching  by  electricity  (a  harmless  process)  was  in 
vogue  in  some  places.  On  the  other  hand  nauseating  odors,  due  both  to  piles 
of  dirty  clothes  and  washing  odors,  were  fairly  frequent.  Escaping  unburned 
gas  fumes,  usually  from  other  processes,  were  present  in  some  places.  The 
inducement  to  stiinulantisiii  was  a  fair  hazard  in  the  majority  of  places,  due  to 
the  depressing  influences  of  various  combinations  of  the  hazards  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  13  places,  and  fair  to  bad 
in  the  remaining  6,  where  many  were  in  need  of  physical  examinations  to 
determine  their  health  status.  Complaints  on  the  part  of  the  workers  were  sur- 
prisingly few  and  pertained  to  heat  principally,  and  fatigue  secondarily.  Com- 
ments.— Air  conditioning  systems  to  supply  cool  air  in  summer  and  warm  air 
in  winter,  with  means  of  removing  humidity,  as  by  suction  fans  or  hoods,  are 
urgently  needed  in  many  places.  In  addition,  good  floor  drains,  impervious 
aprons  or  clothing,  proper  shoes  or  boots,  variations  at  process  so  that  females 
in  particular  need  not  stand  constantly,  adequate  wash  facilities  (even  to  shower 
baths),  a  proper  place  to  hang  street  clothing  outside  of  the  wash  room,  and 
the  separation  of  the  washing  process   from  other  processes,  are  chief  correc- 

13      O.    D. 


J 


194 

tive  features.     Again,  a  careful  record  should  be  kept  of  all  sickness  and  its 
character. 

LAUNDRY, MANGLING. 

This  process  consists  in  taking  flat  work,  as  a  rule,  which  has  just  come 
from  the  washing  machines  and  extractors  and  passing  it  through  cylinders 
which  are  heated  by  steam  pipes  or  electricity.  While  the  central  cylinder  ex- 
poses an  iron  surface  the  others  are  usually  covered  with  felt.  The  workers 
stand  on  raised  platforms  at  the  large  mangles,  while  they  may  sit  down  at 
the  smaller  ones.  Feeders  introduce  the  goods  into  the  rolls  while  folders  on 
the  opposne  side  of  the  machine  remove  them. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  15  plants  employing  a  total  of  362  wagfe- 
earners  of  whom  22  were  males  and  340  were  females.  The  work,  although 
unskilled,  engaged  a  fairly  intelligent  type  of  workers  in  two-thirds  of  the 
places.  There  were  no  union  organizations.  The  retention  of  the  workers  was 
good  in  12  places  and  at  least  fair  in  the  remaining.  The  attitude  towards 
workers  seemed  excellent  in  9  places,  good  in  4  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remain- 
ing 2.  Some  instructions  along  health  lines  were  found  in  2  places.  There 
were  no  sick  benefit  organizations.  Health  appliances  (see  below)  were  good 
in  9  places,  fair  in  2,  and  absent  or  inefficient  in  the  remaining  4.  The  general 
construction  of  work  quarters  was  good  in  6  places,  fair  in  6  more,  and  poor 
in  the  remaining  3.  Other  processes,  such  as  washing,  ironing,  marking  and 
sorting,  were  present  in  the  same  room  in  9  places.  There  were  16  persons 
over  40  years  of  age,  and  about  25  under  20  years  of  age. 

Steam,  humidity  and  dampness  were  negligible  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in 
4  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  5.  In  some  places  this  was  as  much  due  to 
the  washing  processes  present  as  escape  of  steam  from  the  mangles  them- 
selves. In  3  places  quarters  were  unduly  dark.  General  room  ventilation  was 
good  in  5  places,  fair  in  5  more,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  5,  due  to  the  lack 
of  air  exchange  and  the  contaminations  from  the  processes  present.  The  room 
temperature  was  good  in  3  places,  fairly  hot  in  8  more,  and  unduly  so  in  the 
remaining  4.  In  about  the  same  proportion  washup  facilities  were  meagre, 
while  here  and  there  toilets  were  located  at  a  distance  and  were  only  reached 
through  cold  passage  ways.  Fatigue  was  a  bad  feature  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in 
8  more,  and  negligible  in  the  remaining  6.  The  chief  features  were  constant 
standing  and  monotonous  work,  particularly  in  the  case  of  young  girls.  Piece- 
work was  noted  in  but  1  place.  The  awkward  postures  assumed  by  many,  and 
the  self-same  rapid  movements,  were  also  features.  The  workday  was  8  hours 
in  1  place,  and  from  9  to  9^^  in  7  places,  and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  7.  In 
a  few  places  it  was  shortened  on  certain  days  of  the  week.  Saturday  after- 
noon oflf  was  the  rule  at  all  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  at  1  place, 
and  J  hour  at  the  remaining  14.  The  risk  of  contracting  communicable  dis- 
eases was  negligible  in  5  places,  but  a  fair  hazard  in  the  remaining  10,  due  to 
such  features  as  common  cups  and  towels,  inadequate  wash  places,  poor  toilets, 
absence  of  lockers,  crowding  of  workers  side  by  side,  and  lack  of  medical  super- 
vision. In  only  a  few  places  were  men  and  women  working  side  by  side. 
Medical  supervision  is  quite  important  since  the  large  machines  require  a 
number  of  persons  to  work  close  together.  Poisoning  is  no  feature  of  the 
process,  but  escaped  and  incompletely  oxidized  gas    fumes   were  noticeable  in 


195 

2  places.     The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  was  in  direct  proportion 
to  the  extent  of  heat,  moisture  and  fatigue  factors. 

The  appearance  of  the  workers  was  generally  good  in  9  places,  and  no 
more  than  fair  in  the  remaining  6.  Here  and  there  were  some  who  were  plainly 
affected  by  the  heat.  Comments. — For  the  escape  of  steam  there  should  be 
provided  exhaust  hoods  as  closely  suspended  over  mangles  as  possible,  room 
exhaust  fans,  air-agitators  and  perhaps  air-conditioning  systems  such  as  a 
number  of  places  have  already  installed.  In  1  place  cool  air  blasts  were  pro- 
vided. Changing  about  between  feeders  and  folders  would  do  much  to  vary 
the  monotony  of  the  work,  as  the  folders  can  usually  sit  down. 

LAUNDRY. IRONING. 

This  process  was  either  machine  ironing  or  hand  ironing.  In  the  former, 
goods  are  passed  through  cylinders  resembling  mangles  and  arranged  to  suit 
the  classes  of  goods  to  be  ironed.  They  are  usually  operated  by  the  use  of  a 
foot  lever  which  is  several  inches  above  the  floor.  The  machines  operate  very 
fast,  as  a  rule,  and  have  different  names,  such  as  body-  ironers,  cuff  ironers, 
etc.  In  the  processes  here  described,  dampening,  drying  and  starching,  which 
are  closely  associated,  are  included  .with  ironing. 

This  was  investigated  in  21  establishments  employing  at  this  process  a 
total  of  774  wage-earners,  of  whom  34  were  males  and  740  were  females.  The 
use  of  modern  methods  prevailed  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  6,  and  not  so  in 
the  remaining  5.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  exhaust  fans  and  air-agitators 
for  room  ventilation  (and  in  a  few  instances  of  compressed  air  to  operate  the 
rolls,  instead  of  a  foot  le\er),  were  good  in  9  places  and  absent  in  the  remaining 
12.  Definite  instructions  along  health  lines  were  being  given  in  5  places.  There 
were  no  union  organizations.  The  general  type  of  workers  was  good  in  13 
places,  fair  in  6  more,  and  largely  ignorant  foreigners  in  the  remaining.  The 
attitude  toward  employes  appeared  excellent  in  14  places,  fair  in  6,  and  not 
so  in  the  remaining  1.  Retention  seemed  good  in  161  places,  fair  in  3,  and  not 
so  in  the  remaining  2.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations.  Work  rooms 
were  hygienically  constructed  in  9  places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  and  not  so  in 
the  remaining  9.  Other  processes  than  those  mentioned  were  present  in  4  places. 
There  were  14  persons  over  40  years  of  age,  and  about  80  under  20.  The 
work  is  unskilled,  although  a  little  experience  develops  a  high  degree  of  dex- 
terity. 

General  cleanliness  was  good  in  18  of  the  places,  and  at  least  fair  in  2  of 
the  remaining.  Humidity  was  a  bad  hazard  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  6  more, 
and  negligible  in  the  remaining  11,  the  cause  being  escaped  steam,  and,  in  some 
places,  wet  floors.  Seventeen  places  were  well  lighted,  1  fairly  so,  and  3  not  so. 
General  room  ventilation  was  excellent  in  5  places,  and  fair  to  good  in  14  more, 
but  bad  in  the  remaining  2.  This  was  due  to  motionless  air,  contamination 
by  imburned  gas  fumes  from  heating  appliances  and  somewhat  by  odors  arising 
from  solutions  and  goods.  Heat  was  a  bad  feature  in  2  places,  and  fairly  So 
in  10  more.  Fatigue  was  a  factor  in  practically  all  places,  due  to  the  nature  of 
the  work  which  seems  to  require  (?)  constant  standing  for  the  majority  of 
the  workers,  and  in  a  rather  unnatural  posture,  with  monotonous  movements 
rapidly  performed.  The  constant  use  of  the  foot  lever  is  the  most  fatiguing 
feature.     In  9  places  there  was  evidence  of   hurrying  piecework.     There  was 


196 

also  considerable  eye  strain,  due  to  the  constant  looking  do^vnward  upon  white 
and  other  glazed  starcHed  goods.  This  is  more  pronounced  among  hand  ironers. 
The  workday  was,  8  hours  in  1  place,  8^  to  9  hours  in  4  places,  and  9  to  10 
hours  in  the  remaining  16,  with  some  variations  on  certain  days.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  2  places,  and  l4  hour  in  the  remaining  19.  Overtime 
was  rarely  resorted  to.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases 
was  negligible  in  9  places,  a  fair ;  hazard  in  9  more,  and  bad  in  3,  due  prin- 
cipally to  inadequate  wash  facilities  and  closets,  the  use  of  common  drinking 
cups  and  towels,  and  to  the  lack  of  medical  supervision,  especially  for  the 
large  number  of  young  females  employed.  Liability  to  poisoning  is  no  feature 
of  the  process  itself,  provided  gas  connections  are  good;  otherwise,  there  is 
considerable  danger  of  chronic  gassing.  This  is  the  same  for  hand  ironers, 
as  elsewhere  described.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stiiiiulantism  was  found 
to  be  a  fair  hazard  in  at  least  13  places,  due  to  the  depressing  influences 
above  described. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  12  places,  and  only  fair 
in  the  remaining  9.  Complaints  by  workers  themselves  were  not  numerous, 
although  in  many  instances  they  appeared  either  too  busy  or  too  timid  to 
answer  questions.  Their  statements  consisted  chiefly  of  fatigue  symptoms, 
heat  effects,  especially  in  warm  weather,  and  the  frequency  of  headaches  and 
indispositions.  Comments. — Work  variation  appears  to  be  the  most  feasible 
means  of  meeting  the  question  of  fatigue  in  this  process.  This  should  be  in- 
sisted upon  irrespective  of  the  wishes  of  employes.  Standing  upon  cement  or 
other  hard  floors  should  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  mats,  low  platforms,  etc. 
Instructions  should  be  given  in  how  to  stand,  and  in  the  avoidance  of  awkward 
postures.  The  leaning  upon  hand  irons  with  the  breast  or  stomach  is  apt  to 
be  productive  of  digestive  troubles,  chief  among  which  ulcer  of  the  stomach 
and  gall  bladder  troubles  are  to  be  feared.  Frail  girls  should  not  be 
permitted  to  manipulate  heavy  hand  irons  nor  foot  treadle  machines.  This 
question  of  fraility  and  qualifications  for  such  work  cannot  be  judged  by  the 
mere  appearance  of  a  worker.  All  of  these  employes  should  be  under  proper 
medical  supervision.  The  frequency  of  lower  limb  complaints,  under  par  con- 
ditions, female  disturbances,  and  neurasthenia  among  laundresses,  is  well  known. 
Much  headache  can  be  prevented  by  arranging  the  workers  properly  in  respect 
to  light,  and  in  the  use  of  eye  shades;  darkened  glasses  for  workers  on  white 
goods  would  prove  very  restful.  Other  features  are  suggested  in  health  hazards 
above  mentioned. 

DRY    CLEANING. 

Dry  cleaning  involves  various  chemical  and  mechanical  processes  for  the 
cleaning  and  removing  of  spots  and  stains  upon  clothing  and  various  textiles. 
While  naphtha  (benzine,  gasoline),  is  the  chief  chemical  used,  and  that  which 
the  vast  majority  of  workers  are  concerned  with,  a  considerable  list  of  other 
fat,  resin,  and  color  solvents  are  used  by  a  few  skilled  workers  who  understand 
th'eir  solvent  powers,  and  are  usually  well  informed  as  to  their  poisonous 
properties.  The  process  in  many  places  is  closely  associated  with  dyeing,  so 
that  the  workers  at  one  process  were  subjected  to  the  hazards  of  the  other. 

Dry  cleaning  was  the  chief  process  concerned  in  25  establishments  here 
reported.  These  were  found  to  employ  a  total  of  142  wage-earners,  73  of 
whom  were  males   and  69   females.     Thoroughly   modem   methods   and   equip- 


197 

ments  were  the  rule  in  20  places,  fairly  so  in  2  other,  and  not  so  in  the  remain- 
ing- 3,  the  largest  of  which  employed  5  persons.  Health  appliances  (see  below) 
to  protect  tlic  workers  from  breathing  the  naphtha  fumes  were  of  good  efficiency 
in  T  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  16.  Health 
placards  and  definite  health  instructions  were  present  in  2  places.  There  were 
no  union  organizations,  nor  were  there  sick  benefit  societies.  The  attitude 
toward  workers,  retention  of  workers,  and  the  type  of  workers  were  good 
in  21   places,   fairly   so   in   3   more,   and  not   so   in   the   remaining   1.     The   work 


Fig.  51.     Dry  Cleaning. 

A  revolving  naphtha  cleaning  tub,  completely  enclosed  and  having  an  excellent 

exhaust  system  to  remove  fumes. 


itself  required  no  particular  skill.  Work  quarters  were  hygienically  constructed 
in  14  places,  fairly  so  in  5  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6.  Other  pro- 
cesses (other  than  dyeing)  were  found  occasionally.  In  all  places  great  care 
was  taken  to  avoid  fires  and  explosions  in  the  storage  and  use  of  naphtha.  In 
dry  cleaning  itself  there  were  but  3  wage-earners  over  the  age  of  40  while  very 
few,  if  any,  appeared  to  l)c  under  the  age  of  20. 

Quarters  were  kept  clean  in  22  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  other  3.  In  7 
places  dampness  and  humidity  were  fair  hazards,  while  in  the  balance  they 
were  negligible.     Quarters  were  well  lighted  in  'lO  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others. 


198 

and  not  so  in  the  remaining  3.  The  air  of  the  workrooms  was  satisfactory  in 
4  places,  fairly  so  in  16  others  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6,  due  to  the  con- 
tamination of  escaping  naphtha  fumes.  In  2  places  quarters  were  kept  unduly 
warm.  Workers  also  had  a  tendency  to  dress  very  lightly,  and  to  expose  them- 
selves outdoors,  or  to  drafts,  rather  frequently  while  so  clothed.  In  some  places 
the  isolated  dry  cleaning  building  was  entirely  devoid  of  heating  methods. 
Fatigue  was  a  negligible  factor  in  22  places,  but  in  at  least  3  establishments 
there  was  constant  standing  even  where   females  were  employed.     The  work- 


FiG.  52.     Dry  Cleaning. 

Showing  method  of  hot  drying  of  articles  so  that  workers  do  not  need  to  enter 
the  drying  room,  which  is  filled  with  hot  naphtha  fumes. 


day  was  8  hours  in  1  place,  from  8^  to  9  hours  in  15,  and  from  9  to  10  in 
the  remaining  9.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  13  places,  and  ^  hour  in 
the  remaining  12.  Outside  of  the  disputed  risk  of  handling  used  garments, 
there  was  no  particular  liability  toward  contracting  commtmicable  diseases  in 
21  of  the  places,  while  in  4  there  was  promiscuous  spitting  about  the  floors, 
and  the  absence  of  cuspidors.  As  a  rule  there  were  very  few  employes  doing 
this  work  in  any  one  place,  although  in  the  cleaning  of  gloves,  and  similar 
small  pieces,  there  were  as  high  as  25  females  employed.    The  absence  of  lockers 


199 

and  the  use  of  common  towels  and  common  drinking  cups  were  frequent  obser- 
vations. In  4  places  the  escape  of  naphtha  fumes  was  sufficient  to  cause 
chronic  poisoning.  Fortunately  these  were  all  small  places,  employing  1  or  2 
men  at  the  process.  In  19  other  places  the  odor  of  naphtha  was  definitely 
present,  but  in  rather  too  small  amount  to  affect  the  health  of  workers,  pro- 
viding undue  individual  susceptibility  were  guarded  against.  Many  workers 
appeared  to  expose  their  hands  more  than  necessary  to  naphtha.  The  use  of 
other  dangerous  substances,  such  as  ether,  chloroform,  acetone,  wood  alcohol, 
benzol,  turpentine  and  carbon  bisulphide  was  always  limited  in  amount,  and 
looked  after  by  a  skilled  worker.  Industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  had 
for  its  chief  factor  the  depressing  influence  of  the  inhalation  of  the  fumes. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  19  places,  fair  in  4 
others  (including  1  establishment  employing  14  help,  of  whom  8  were  females), 
and  poor  in  the  2  remaining  (both  ^mall  places').  In  5  places  workers  com- 
plained of  poor  ventilation  and  the  insufficiency  of  methods  used  to  remove 
the  fumes.  Their  symptoms  were  the  usuat  ones  of  acute  and  repeated  benzine 
poisoning.  Investigators  saw  2  cases  of  mild,  acute  benzine  poisoning,  and  2 
whose  symptoms  were  evidently  due  to  chronic  benzine  poisoning.  In  several 
instances  workers  were  remarkably  pale  as  well.  Comments.  —  The  complete 
enclosure  of  naphtha  tubs,  or  the  complete  confinement  of  the  fumes  within 
the  tub,  except  during  brief  intervals  of  opening  and  closing,  were  the  methods 
usually  taken.  In  addition,  for  table  work  and  open  vats,  room-exhaust  fans 
and  hoods  locally  applied,  with  down-draft  fans,  should  be  used.  Floors  should 
be  impervious  and  easily  drained. 

The  subsequent  DRYING  of  the  cleaned  articles  should  be  done  in  cabinets 
or  cupboards  which  do  not  have  to  be  entered.  This  can  be  effected  quite 
easily  by  the  use  of  sliding  racks,  upon  which  the  articles  are  hung,  and  so 
arranged  that  when  the  rack  is  within  the  cupboard,  or  is  in  the  room  out- 
side, the  cupboard  is  entirely  closed.  There  should  be.  also,  a  slight  suction 
in  this  cupboard  to  prevent  leakage  into  the  outside  room.  It  was  further  claimed 
that   agitating  the  air  in   this   cupboard  greatly   facilitated   the   drying. 

CARPET  CLEANING.  —  Carpet  cleaning  is  sometimes  also  done  by  dry 
cleaning  establishments.  This  was  investigated  in  3  places  employing  a  total  of 
24  wage-earners,  all  males.  In  all  places  dust  from  the  carpets  was  a  bad  hazard. 
In  1  place  the  people  in  the  neighborhood  complained  very  much  on  this  ac- 
count. In  all  places  there  seemed  to  be  great  liability  to  the  contraction  of 
communicable  diseases,  due  not  only  to  the  dust  coming  from  the  carpets  but 
to  carelessness  in  spitting  upon  the  floors  and  in  the  inadequacy  of  wash- 
places  and  proper  toilets.  Cleaning  of  quarters  was  usually  done  by  dry 
methods.  Windows  were  depended  upon  for  ventilation.  Quarters  were  very 
dirty  in  1  place.  After  removing  the  dust  from  the  carpets,  they  were  next 
scrubbed  either  by  hand  or  in  a  tumbling  machine,  without  any  material  hazard 
to  health.  Again,  some  rugs,  and,  even,  carpets  were  cleaned  in  naphtha 
baths,  without  practically  any  protection  from  the  fumes.  Fortunately,  this 
latter  process  was  not  a  continuous  one. 

DYEING. 

The  process  of  dyeing  clothes  was  investigated  in  1^^.  places,  and  of  hats 
in   1   place.     The  dyeing  of  textiles    (not   an  extensive  industry  in  Ohio)    was 


200 

investigated  in  several  places  as  well.  The  total  workers  so  engaged  numbered 
422,  all  males.  The  type  of  workers  and  their  retention  was  good  in  all  but 
1  place.  The  attitude  toward  workers  was  good  in  10  places,  fair  in  3,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  1.  There  were  no  unions ;  also  no  sick  benefit  associa- 
tions. The  amount  of  skill  necessary,  so  far  as  the  workers  were  concerned, 
appeared  to  be  very  limited,  this  probably  being  due,  in  a  large  extent,  to  the 
use  of  anilin  dyes  in  modern  methods.  In  5  places,  health  appliances  con- 
sisting of  hoods  over  certain  vats  and  tubs,  and  room-exhaust  fans  were  good; 
in  the  balance  they  were  absent.  The  construction  of  the  work  room  was 
good  in  6  places,  fair  in  3,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  5.  Usually  the  dyeing 
room  was  by  itself,  but  in  2  places  washing,  steaming  and  pressing  were 
being  done  —  in  1  place' engaging  10  females.  There  were  6  persons  over  40 
years  of  age,  and  none,  aparently,  under  20. 

Dust  is  not  a  feature  of  the  process,  although  the  careless  handling  of 
some  of  the  dye  ingredients  might  easily  cause  poisoning  in  such  form. 
Quarters  were  cleanly  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  2,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  2. 
There  was  unnecessary  exposure  to  dampness,  steam  and  wet  floors  in  1  place, 
and  a  fair  exposure  in  11  more.  Quarters  were  poorly  lighted  in  4  places,  but 
good  in  the  remaining  10.  General  room  ventilation  Avas  good  in  3  places,  fair 
in  8,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  3,  the  hazard  of  quiet,  still  air  being  accentuated 
in  several  places  by  the  presence  of  gasoline  fumes  and  steam.  While  heat 
is  a  necessary  feature  of  dyeing,  it  constituted  no  health-hazard  in  13  places, 
the  remaining  1  being  unduly  hot.  On  the  other  hand,  2  places  were  very  poorly 
heated  for  winter  work  (both  small).  The  process  was  not  fatiguing,  although 
there  was  considerable  standing-still.  The  workday  was  found  to  be  from  9 
to  10  hours  in  all  places ;  the  noon  recess  1  hour  in  8  places,  and  ^  hour  in 
6  places.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  conMunnicahle  diseases  was 
negligible  in  1  place,  a  fair  hazard  in  8  others,  and  considerable  in  5  others, 
due,  principally,  to  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  wash 
places,  poor  toilets  and  the  use  of  common  cups  and  towels.  (The  question 
of  handling  used  garments  is  discussed  under  Dry  Cleaning  and  in  Laundry 
Processes.)  The  liability  to  poisoning  was  some  hazard  in  all  places,  and 
particularly  so  in  4,  the  risk  being  largely  one  of  personal  carelessness.  For- 
tunately, the  large  majority  of  anilin  dyes  are  non-poisonous.  However,  the 
manufacturers'  agents  for  such  dyes  claim  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  rid 
most  of  them  from  traces  of  arsenic.  The  non-labeling  of  poisonous  dye 
materials  is  a  serious  factor,  for  it  was  found  that  practical^  none  of  the 
workers  had  any  information  as  to  which  were  poisonous  and  which  were 
non-poisonous.  In  addition  to  the  dyes,  various  cleaning  substances,  especially 
naphtha,  used  in  auxiliary  processes,  were  encountered  in  several  places.  The 
industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  was  chiefly  influenced  by  the  unhealthy 
character  of  the  air  breathed. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  12  places  and*  fair 
in  the  remaining  2.  The  chief  complaints  were  the  effects  of  steam  and 
escaped  gas  fumes,  while  1  employe  mentioned,  particularly,  dermatitis.  Com- 
ments.— Good  workroom  ventilation,  and  the  use  of  hoods  over  steam  and  hot 
processes  are  the  essential  features.  Beyond  this,  workmen  should  be  pro- 
tected by  the  requiring  of  a  label  upon  all  poisonous  dye  ingredients.  The 
almost  exclusive  use  of  anilin  and  vegetable  dyes  in  weak  solutions  seems  to 
have  done  away  with  the  danger  of  poisoning  after  the  solutions  are  made  up. 


20I 

As  STEAM  CLEANING  is  more  apt  to  be  done  in  connection  with  tlie 
dyeing  quarters  than  elsewhere,  it  is  mentione'd  here.  Heat,  humidity,  ahernate 
exposure  to  drafts,  absence  of  lockers  and  dry  places  for  street  clothes,  and  of 
proper  wash-up  facilities,  were  the  main  hazards,  and  the  mention  of  them 
suggests  the  remedies. 

STORAGE     BATTERIES. 

In  the  making  of  storage  batteries  (electric  accumulators)  lead  plates  are 
cast,  usually  in  machine  molds,  dressed  up,  polished,  brushed,  and  lead  oxide 
pastes  rubbed  into  them.  The  plates  or  elements  are  then  connected  together 
by  soldering  and  lead-burning  processes,  using  blow  pipes  as  a  rule,  after  which 
they  are  placed  in  lead-lined  boxes  or  glass,  or  other  impervious  jars,  dilute 
sulphuric   acid  added   or  other  electrolyte,   and  then   charged. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  9  different  establishments  of  which  4 
employed  but  1  to  3  men  ;  also  in  connection  with  1  automobile  factory,  1  auto- 
mobile repair  plant,  and  1  railroad,  shop.  One  shop  employed  no  workers 
outside  of  the  owners  themselves,  the  total  employes  engaged  in  the  remain- 
ing 8  plants  numbering  529,  all  males.  In  no  places  could  methods  be  regarded 
as  modern,  from  the  point  of  view  of  preventing  lead  poisoning.  There  were 
no  unions.  The  attiture  towards  workers  seemed  good  in  4  places,  while 
interest  in  their  welfare  seemed  to  lag  in  the  remaining.  In  the  2  largest 
plants  workers  were  very  largely  ignorant  foreigners,  most  of  whom  were 
unable  to  speak  English.  This  would  include  fully  80%  of  all  the  workers 
so  engaged.  The  steadiness  of  workers  in  the  various  processes  was  con- 
siderably interfered  with  by  sickness  in  the  form  of  lead  poisoning.  Health 
protective  appliances  to  remove  fumes  and  dust  were  quite  universally  absent 
or  were  installed  with  more  or  less  makeshift  attempts,  and  greatly  lacking  in 
efficiency,  particularly  for  the  protection  of  the  type  of  workers  so  employed. 
In  the  2  large  plants  medical  supervision  was  being  developed  at  the  time  of 
our  in.spection,  while  instructions  were  being  published  for  the  workers  upon 
the  subject  of  lead  poisoning  and  its  prevention.  How  far  such  were  in- 
telligible to  the  workers  we  were  unable  to  ascertain.  Apparently  too  much 
was  being  expected  of  the  physician  and  too  little  thought  and  money  devoted 
to  the  correction  of  conditions.  In  1  plant  employing  6  men  at  this  process 
the  privilege  of  a  sick  benefit  association  was  at  hand,  but  the  balance  of  wage- 
earners  enjoyed  no  such  insurance.  The  work  was  practically  all  unskilled. 
The  hygienic  construction  of  work  rooms  was  good  in  5  places  employing  a 
total  of  57  workers,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  3.  Other  work  than  that  apper- 
taining to  the  making  of  storage  batteries  was  present  in  the  same  quarters  in 
4  small  places,  thus  needlessly  exposing  such  workers  to  the  hazards  of  the 
storage  battery  business. 

In  practically  all  work  rooms  where  lead  dusts  or  pastes  were  used,  the 
hazard  to  health  was  bad.  Methods  of  generally  doubtful  efficiency  were 
adopted  here  and  there  to  prevent  it.  Employes  were  supplied  with  respirators 
which  seemed  to  be  the  chief  means  depended  upon  to  avoid  the  inhaling  of 
dust.  These  were  indififerently  worn.  Much  of  the  dust  came  from  the  drying 
down  of  the  pastes  upon  the  work  bench  and  the  floor,  where  moving  about 
stirred  it  up.  There  was  also  great  risk  from  the  fine  lead  dust  deposited  from 
fumes  in  the  founding  and  casting  quarters.  General  cleanliness  of  quarters, 
an  extremely  important  feature  in  this  line  of  work,  was  good  in  4  small  places. 


202 

fair  in  1,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  3,  which  included  the  vast  majority  of  the 
total  number  of  workers.  Impervious  floors  capable  of  flushing  with  a  hose 
were  a  chief  absent  feature.  There  was  some  dampness  and  permanent  wetting 
of  floors  in  some  places  (as  the  charging  rooms),  but  this  constituted  only  a 
nominal  hazard  and  employed  few  persons.  In  some  places,  quarters  for  a 
considerable  number  of  the  workers  were  poorly  lighted.  General  room  ven- 
tilation was  good  in  1  small  plant,  fair  in  2  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  5. 
In  the  melting  and  casting  processes,  heat  was  a  fair  hazard,  although  most 
(not  all)  of  the  melting  pots  and  furnaces  were  fairly  well  hooded  and 
drafted.  Adequate  washing  facilities  for  most  employes  were  very  meagre, 
and  for  hot  process-workers  no  shower  baths  were  provided.  Fatigue  was  a 
considerable  factor  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  1  other,  and  negligible  in  the  remain- 
ing 6,  the  latter  employing  a  total  of  only  a  few  men,  however.  The  chief 
factors  were  hurrying  piecework,  speeding  up,  monotony,  prolonged  standing, 
and  faulty  postures.  The  workday  was  9  hours  in  2  small  places  and  10  hours 
in  the  remaining  6  places.  The  noon  recess  was  ^  hour  in  6  places,  ^  hour 
in  1,  and  1  hour  in  the  remaining  1,  the  last  2  employing  a  total  of  11  persons. 
Occasionally  overtime  was  necessary.  Lead  poisoning  is  the  great  hazard  in 
this  industry.  There  is  some  risk  also  from  the  careless  handling  of  acids  in 
pasting,  soldering,  lead  burning,  and  charging.  The  chief  factors  inducing 
lead  poisoning  are  the  use  of  lead  and  lead  compounds  in  dust,  molten  and 
fumy  forms  without  proper  mechanical  confinement  or  removal  of  the  same 
from  the  atmosphere  which  the  workers  breathed.  The  next  feature  is  the 
employing  of  an  ignorant  type  of  laborer  in  a  most  poison-hazardous  process, 
— ipersons  whom  it  is  most  difficult  to  instruct  in  personal  hygiene.  To  ac- 
complish anything  here  it  is  necessary  to  supply  workers  with  special  outer 
garments  and  keep  them  clean  and  in  repair,  to  insist  that  workers  do  not 
eat  in  the  workrooms  (by  all  means  proper  eating  quarters  should  be  pro- 
vided), that  they  carefully  wash  their  hands,  faces  and  lips,  before  eating  or 
putting  anything  in  the  mouth,  that  they  do  not  carry  tobacco  about  in  their 
work  clothes  so  that  lead  dusts  and  fumes  can  contaminate  the  same,  that 
they  keep  their  finger  nails  trimmed  short,  their  mustaches  trimmed  short,  and 
that  time  be  given  them  at  least  twice  a  day  to  attend  to  these  matters, — 
preferably  just  before  the  noon  recess  and  before  quitting  time,  and  that 
foremen  be  especially  drilled  to  superintend  the  carrying  out  of  such  measures. 
A  third  feature  is  extreme  cleanliness  of  floors,  tables,  benches,  walls  and 
ledges,  by  wet  processes  and  vacuum  cleaners,  and  the  maintenance  of  the 
purity  of  the  air  by  preventing  its  contamination  in  any  way  with  lead  in  any 
form.  Finally,  the  frequent  physical  examination  of  each  worker  by  a  com- 
petent physician.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  is  greatly  favored 
in  this  industry  by  the  presence  of  the  poison  element  —  lead  —  one  of  the  eflfects 
of  which  is  to  create  a  craving  for  stimulants.  The  frequency  of  the  associa- 
tion between  alcoholism  and  lead  poisoning  is  well  known. 

In  two  small  places  employing  a  total  of  9  men,  all  were  healthy  appearing. 
In  the  remaining  establishments,  a  few  to  many  occupationally  diseased  work- 
men were  seen.  Most  of  these  had  prominent  signs  and  symptoms  of  lead 
poisoning,  sometimes  of  acute  form  with  manifestations  just  beginning.  In 
addition,  numbers  of  persons  reported  attacks  of  colic,  and  disabilities  lasting 
from  a  few  days  to  several  weeks  which  were  unquestionably  due  to  lead 
poisoning.    Hospitals,  dispensaries  and  physicians,  in  the  vicinity  of  such  works. 


203 

gave  many  statistics  of  lead  poisoning  cases.  The  chief  features  of  these  are 
summarized  in  Part  VI  of  this  report.  Comments.  —  Outside  of  the  actual 
manufacture  of  the  oxides  and  salts  of  lead,  there  is  no  industry  covered  in 
our  survey  which  requires  greater  precautions  against  lead  poisoning  than  the 
manufacture  of  storage  batteries.  The  means  necessary  to  prevent  lead  poison- 
ing are  summarized  above.  This  is  an  industry  in  which  conditions  are  much 
more  to  blame  for  sickness  than  to  workers.  These  conditions  have  been  success- 
fully coped  with  elsewhere.  It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  the  seriousness  of  these 
things  is  being  more  and  more  appreciated  by  manufacturers  and  that  many 
improvements  in  these  same  plants  have  been  under  way  since  our  inspections 
were-  first  made,  with  the  result  that  there  has  been  a  noticeable  dropping  off 
in  the  number  of  reported  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  when  the  year  1914  is  com- 
pared to  the  year  1913. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  rules  and  precautions  for  the  prevention 
of  lead  poisoning  formulated  by  the  Committee  on  Storage  Batteries;  Asso- 
ciation of  Edison  Illuminating  Companies,  adopted  September  15-17,  1914,  and 
approved  by  the  American  Museum  of  Safety  (see  ''Safety,"  Vol.  2,  No.  9,  Oct. 
1914,  p.. 219,  — 29  West  39th  St.,  New  York.)  Furthermore,  the  Ohio  State  B9ard 
of  Health  has  a  large  placard  upon  "Instructions  to  Employes — How  to  Pre- 
vent Lead  Poisoning,"  intended  for  posting  up  in  workrooms.  These  instruc- 
tions were  published  in  the  Bulletin  of  the  State  Board  of  Health  for  June, 
1914,  p.  845,  and  are  given  in  Part  VII  of  this  report. 

DRY    BATTERIES. 

The  manufacture  of  dry  batteries  was  investigated  in  3  establishments,  in  3 
cities,  in  which  a  total  of  978  wage-earners  were  engaged  at  this  process,  of 
whom  761  were  males  and  117  were  females.  There  were  no  union  organiza- 
tions in  any  of  the  places.  The  general  welfare  attitude  towards  the  workers, 
the  type  of  the  workers,  and  their  retention  at  work  seemed  good,  fair  and 
bad  in  each  of  the  places  respectively.  There  were  no  adequate  health  ap- 
pliances, no  instructions  or  placards  along  health  lines,  nor  sick  benefit  asso- 
ciations.    The  work  was  almost  entirely  unskilled  labor. 

Dust  was  a  bad  hazard  in  2  of  the  places,  and  to  a  fair  extent  in  the 
third,  due  to  the  large  amount  of  carbon  and  "battery  dust"  used.  In  one  place 
the  men  kept  faces  covered  with  talcum  to  prevent  "skin  from  peeling  off"  in 
handling  hot  pitch.  One  plant  was  also  quite  dark,  and  not  kept  clean.  General 
ventilation  seemed  good  in  all  three  places.  Fatigue  was  not  much  of  a  factor. 
General  sanitary  arrangements  were  usually  good,  but  on  account  of  the  dust  \ 
and  the  usual  absence'  of  cuspidors  there  was  considerable  risk  of  spreading 
communicable  diseases,  particularly  as  no  medical  supervision  obtained.  Creo- 
sote, pitch,  benzol,  hydrochloric  acid,  zinc  chloride,  lead  (soldering),  mercury 
(amalgamizing),  and  the  organic  bodies  found  in  carbon  constituted  the  poisons 
present;  the  hazards  from  all  were  considerable.  In  1  place  a  large  percentage 
of  the  workers  were  pale  and  anemic  looking,  in  the  other  2  places  their 
appearances  were  somewhat  better.  Our  investigators  found  several  cases  of 
skin  trouble,  with  redness,  fissuring  and  itching;  also  cases  of  unquestioned  con- 
sumption; and  in  some  instances  of  acid  burns  and  zinc  chloride  burns.  Com- 
plaints were  frequent  of  fumes,  dusts,  acids,  etc.  A  prominent  surgeon  in 
Cleveland   claims   to   have   had   several   cases   of   epitheliomata    (cancer   of    the 


204 

skin)  from  these  workers  and  thinks  they  resemble  in  origin  the  same  class  of 
neoplasms  which  affect  chimnej'-sweeps.  An  officer  of  a  companj-  in  another 
city  stated  that  he  knew  of  3  of  their  employes  who  had  worked,  subject  to 
carbon  dust,  and  who  were  said  to  have  died  of  cancer  which  began  in  the 
mouth. 

Coiniiients.  —  It  would  require  an  intensive  study  to  determine  how  best  to 
protect  this  class  of  workers.  It  is  well  enough  to  sa}^  "local  exhausts,  hoods, 
gloves,  etc.",  'but  the  exposure  to  the  dust  is  unusual,  and  very  difficult  to  con- 
trol. Probably  chemists,  engineers  and  sanitarians  could  suggest  some  changes 
in  methods  which  would  suffice.  It  must  be  remembered  that  most  of  these 
employes  probably  do  not  have  the  cancers  develop  until  years  after  leaving 
the  emploj'  of  the  firms. 

INCANDESCENT     LAMP     MANUFACTURING. 

As  the  processes  in  this  industry,  with  the  exception  of  glass  blowing,  are 
quite  different  from  those  elsewhere  described,  it  is  considered  best  to  take 
them  up  separatelj'  at  this  place.  The  industry  was  investigated  in  7  plants 
located  in  5  cities  and  employing  a  total  of  1995,  of  whom  447  were  males  and 
1548  were  females.  Of  this  number  82  males  and  577  females  were  engaged  in 
the  particular  processes  discussed  here  below.  The  general  type  of  workers 
was  good  in  all  places.  Verj-  good  effort  was  made  to  retain  them.  There  were 
no  union  organizations.  Considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  health  ap- 
pliances, especially  in  5  places.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations  re- 
ported, though  in  1  place  a  beginning  was  being  made  for  such.  None  of. the 
work  was  of  a  skilled  character.  Premises  were  of  fair  to  good  hygienic  con- 
struction and  arrangement  in  6  places  and  not  so  in  1.  Efficiency  auxiliaries 
such  as  organized  welfare  promotion,  pleasant  surroundings,  instructions  in 
personal  hygiene,  and  disease  prevention,  were  advantages  enjoyed  by  the  work- 
ers. Age  groups  ran  very  largely  to  j'ounger  persons,  there  being  but  18  over 
40  years  of  age,  455  between  20  and  40,  and  174  under  20. 

In  some  departments  in  5  places  glass  dust  from  broken  fragments  was  a 
moderate  hazard,  although  frequent  cleansing  by  wet  methods  existed.  Respira- 
tors were  furnished  in  sand-blast-departments  but  were  little  used  by  the  work- 
ers. Much  of  the  work  was  of  necessity  done  in  darkened  rooms  and  in  rooms 
in  which  green  window-panes  obscured  the  natural  light.  In  6  places  the  general 
room  ventilation  was  of  no  more  than  fair  character,  while  heat  was  a  fair 
hazard  in  the  same  number  of  places.  A  considerable  amount  of  hurrying 
piecework  was  noted  in  5  places,  much  of  it  of  monotonous  character,  and 
especially  trying  upon  the  eyes,  due  to  flashing  of  lights,  to  brightness  of  lights 
and  to  working  with  fine  filaments.  The  workday  was  between  8  and  9  hours 
in  6  places  and  10  hours  in  1  place,  the  noon  recess  being  1  hour  in  4  places 
and  I  hour  in  the  remaining  3.  All  places  had  good  rest  rooms,  employed  a 
factory  nurse,  required  their  employes  to  leave  the  workrooms  at  the  noon  hour, 
and  to  eat  in  the  lunch  rooms  provided  for  the  purpose.  At  this  time  the 
windows  of  workrooms  w^ere  widely  opened.  Considerable  study  had  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  eyestrain,  and  in  practically  all  places  seats  were  provided 
for  stationary  work.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  commumcahle  diseases 
was  a  fair  hazard  in  parts  of  places,  due  to  such  factors  as  the  use  of  common 
towels,  crowding  (irrespective  of  room  space),  flying  particles,  frequent  trivial 


205 

injuries  and  short-intervaled  common  handling  of  objects.  On  the  other 
hand  these  conditions  were  found  to  have  been  anticipated  by  first-aid  equip- 
nienis.  surgical  rooms,  good  wash  places  and  closets,  the  keeping  of  sick 
records,  the  supplying  of  goggles,  asbestos  finger  cots,  and  in  some  plants 
individual  lockers  and  individual  towels.  Mercury,  wood  alcohol,  phosphorus, 
escaped  gas  fumes,  and  solder,  were  the  chief  poisons  concerned.  None  were 
exposed  to  mercury,  which  was  used  in  closed  containers  to  produce  a  vacuum. 
The  red  phosphorus  was  used  free  of  the  white  or  yellow  variety  in  painting, 
and  the  risk  of  lead  poisoning  from  the  grade  of  solder  used  and  its  manner  of 
use  seemed  negligible.  On  the  other  hand  in  many  places  the  air  was  con- 
siderably devitalized  by  numerous  gas  flames  and  contaminated  by  the  escape  of 
fumes  from  the  same.  In  other  places  exhaust  flues  locally  applied  seemed 
ample.  In  certain  processes  wood  alcohol  fumes  were  unduly  strong,  due  to 
lack  of  prompt  air  exchange.  In  at  least  1  place  the  girls'  fingers  and  hands 
were  moistened  through  sponging  with  wood  alcohol.  The  industrial  induce- 
ment toward  the  taking  of  stimulants  was  some  factor,  due  to  the  effects  of 
eye-strain,  fumes  and  fatigue.  Good  drinking  water  facilities  were  present  in 
all  places. 

In  all  places  a  few  or  more  workers  were  seen  who  were  not  healthy 
looking.  Their  chief  complaints  were  eye  trouble,  causing  a  considerable 
amount  of  headache  among  a  goodly  number  of  employes.  While  this  was  laid 
to  strain,  we  are  not  certain  that  some  of  it  was  not  due  to  wood  alcohol.  Less 
often  were  mentioned  foreign  bodies  in  the  eyes,  trivial  cuts  and  burns,  and, 
here  and  there,  one  stated  that  wood  alcohol  fumes  caused  headache,  and  solder 
fumes  caused  sore  throats. 

A  summary  of  the  chief  hazards  in  each  department  of  the  process  is  here 
given.  Filament  Making.  —  Wood  alcohol,  inadequate  room  ventilation,  gas 
fumes,  heat,  presence  of  other  processes,  hurrying  piecework  and  monotony. 
Tubulating,  Sealing  and  Painting.  —  Gas  fumes,  heat,  wood  alcohol,  some  con- 
stant standing,  broken  glass  dust,  monotony  and  hurrying  piecework,  presence 
of  other  processes,  sometime^  crowding,  small  cuts  and  burns,  foreign  bodies 
in  the  eyes.  Filament  Mounting,  Spidering  and  Winding.  —  Eye-strain  from 
fine  work,  wood  alcohol,  gas  fumes,  warm  quarters,  the  presence  of  other  proc- 
esses, inadequate  room  ventilation,  some  crowding,  hurrying  piecework  and 
monotony,  foreign  bodies  in  the  eyes,  small  cuts  and  burns.  Vacuum  Produc- 
tion.—  Eye  strain  from  bright  and  flashing  lights,  presence  of  other  processes, 
heat,  some  crowding,  some  escape  of  gas  fumes,  hurrying  piece-work  and 
monotony.  Photometry  and  Aging.  —  Eye-strain,  due  to  bright  flashing  lights, 
some  constant  standing,  heat  from  lamps,  presence  of  other  processes,  some 
crowding,  hurrying  piece-work  and  monotony,  inadequate  room  ventilation. 
Finishing  Processes.  —  Some  escape  of  gas  fumes  and  solder  fumes,  a  little 
eye-strain,  wood  alcohol,  troublesome  calluses  produced  by  the  use  of  wire 
cutters,  some  hurrying  piece-work  and  monotony,  inadequate  room  ventilation. 

Comments.  —  In  all  places  most  of  the  hazards  above  enumerated  had 
evidence  of  being  given  considerable  thought  by  the  managements.  However, 
contrast  conditions  were  frequent ;  for  instance,  little  attention  was  paid  to  heat 
in  some  places  while  cool  air  blasts  were  found  installed  in  others,  for  similar 
work.  Lack  of  co-operation  on  the  part  of  some  of  the  employes  was  unques- 
tionably a  troublesome  factor  at  times.  For  general  room  ventilation  exhaust 
fans  in  the  walls  were  installed  in  many  places,  in  some,  rather  too  high  up,  we 


2o6 

believed,  to  be  of  good  service.  The  addition  of  air-agitators,  preferably  the 
large  paddle,  slowly  revolving  type,  would  help  greatly  in  quarters  where  many 
gas  burners  and  methyl  alcohol  are  used.  Atmospheric  determination  instru- 
ments, such  as  the  room  thermometer  and  hygrometer  are  called  attention  to, 
especially  for  warm  quarters  where  youths  and  females  predominate.  The 
examination  of  employes  for  physical  fitness,  already  inaugurated,  should  be 
greatly  extended. 

RUBBER.  —  WASHING. 

-  This  process  consists  in  the  cleansing  and  preparing  of  crude  rubber  by 
"cracking"  it  up  in  mills,  both  warm  and  cold,  with  running  water,  after  which 
the  rubber  is  further  steeped  in  large  tanks  of  water. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  11  establishments.  There  was  a  total  of 
279  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  employes  were  very  largely  foreigners,  many 
of  whom  spoke  very  little  English.  Outside  of  their  own  shifting  tendencies 
they  were  found  to  be  well  retained  by  their  employers.  The  work  is  unskilled. 
Health  appliances,  such  as  floor  drains,  elevated  floor  treads,  the  supplying  of 
rubber  aprons,  boots  and  gloves  were  found  to  be  sufficient  in  5  places,  while 

4  others  made  little  attempts  along  these  lines.  Work  hours  were  8  per  day 
in  1  place,  10  hours  in  9  places,  and  llj-  to  12  hours  in  1  place.  The  noon  recess 
was  30  minutes  in  all  except  1  place.  Ninety-five  per  gent  of  the  workers 
were  under  40  years  of  age.  The  general  construction  of  the  workroom  was 
found  to  be  hygienic  in  7  places  and  fair  to  bad  in  4  others.  The  process  was 
usually  by  itself,  but  in  2  places  the  mixing  and  calendering  mills  were  in  the 
same  room. 

Some  soapstone  dust  was  used  in  5  places,  and  in  1  place  contaminated 
the  air  badly.  The  quarters  were  kept  clean  and  orderly  in  8  places,  while,  in 
3,  waste-products  were  allowed  to  accumulate  and  dr}'  out ;  furthermore,  dry 
cleaning  during  work  hours  was  done.  The  process  is  necessarily  damp  and 
steamy,  and  because  of  the  absence  of  ventilators  for  steam,  the  humidity  was- 
excessive  in  6  places,  and  fairly  so  in  5  more.  Wet  floors  were  common. 
Light  was  good  in  7  of  the  rooms,  fair  in  3,  and  poor  in  1.  Outside  of  the 
humidity,  the  air  was  good  in  5,  fair  in  5,  and  bad  in  1,  due  to  faulty  general 
ventilation  of  quarters.  Rubber  odors  were  pronounced  in  some  confined 
quarters.  The  temperature  was  satisfactory  in  7,  and  rather  uncomfortably 
warm  in  4  places.  Washing  facilities  were  poor  in  6  places,  while  but  1  pro- 
vided a  shower  bath.  Lockers  were  present  in  5  places  and  change  rooms  in 
but  2.  Day  work  was  the  rule.  Fatigue  was  hardly  a  factor.  The  contraction 
of  communicable  diseases  was  very  possible  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  6,  and 
practically  nil  in  3.  The  hazards  were  common  cups,  inadequate  washing 
places,  poor  closets,  spitting  about  the  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  the 
lack  of  medical  supervision.  Poisoning  was  not  a  hazard  in  this  process  of 
itself.  In  3  plants,  lead  and  antimony  were  being  used  in  dust  form  in  the 
some  room,  with,  considerable  liability  to  poisoning  all  the  workers.  Alcoholism 
was  favored  in  8  places  by  the  lack  of  good  drinking  water  facilities,  the 
depressing  effects  of  humidity,  and  absence  of  change-rooms  for  removing  wet 
work-clothes  and  drying  them  out  before  the  next  day's  work. 

The  workers  were  found  to  be  healthy  in  appearance  in  8  places,  while  in 

5  others  1  or  more  sickly  looking  men  were  observed. 


207 


RUBBER.  —  COMPOUNDING. 

The  mixing  together  of  various  ingredients,  usually  metallic  oxides  and 
salts  to  be  mixed  with  the  rubber  later,  is  termed  "compounding".  According 
to  the  various  formulas,  the  dry  powders  are  scooped  out  of  bins  and  weighed 
by  hand,  placed  in  opentop  tin  boxes,  and  carried  direct  to  the  mixing  mills, 
or  delivered  close  thereto  through  pipes,  by  gravity.  Occasionally,  the  in- 
gredients are  first  bolted  in  shakers  in  a  room  above,  to  break  up  lumps. 
Unless  the  shaker  is  well  enclosed,  this  is  exceedingly  dusty  work.  Sometimes 
anilin  oil  is  poured  directly  upon  the  weighed  powders  from  an  ordinary  cup. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  16  establishments,  employing  a  total  of 
151  wage-earners,  all  males.  Methods  were  considered  fairly  modern  in  6, 
and  as  clumsy  and  antiquated  in  10  places.  The  attitude  toward  workers  ap- 
peared to  be  good  in  12  places,  fair  in  3,  and  poor  in  1  place.  The  workers 
were  intelligent  laborers  in  7  places  and  ignorant  foreigners  in  9  places.  The 
firms  made  an  apparently  serious  endeavor  to  retain  workers  in  6  places,  fairly 
so  in  7  others,  while  in  3  the  attitude  toward  the  workers  in  this  process  ap- 
peared to  be  that  of  "If  you  don't  like  the  work,  quit".  Adequate  health 
appliances  were  not  found  in  any  place,  but  the  use  of  closed  hoppers,  conveying 
pipes  and  receptacles,  kept  down  dust  considerably  in  5  places.  In  no  places 
were  complete  dust  exhaust  systems  found,  while  in  11  places  very  little  at- 
tempt was  made  to  limit  dust  in  the  air.  This  fact  was  surprising,  inasmuch  as 
in  all  other  departments  of  most  of  these  plants,  considerable  attention  was 
given  to  health  appliances.  In  but  1  plant  were  the  workers  given  instructions 
by  a  competent  person  on  the  avoidance  of  lead  poisoning.     The  work  day  was 

10  hours  in  14  places,  9i-  hours  in  1  place,  and  8  hours  in  the  remaining  1. 
The  noon  recess  was  v  hour  in  11  places,  1  hour  in  4  places,  and  not  ascer- 
tained in  the  remaining  1.  There  were  usualh^  but  1  or  2  men  considered 
skilled  in  each  place.  The  vast  majority  of  the  men  were  between  20  and  40 
years  of  age.  The  workrooms  were  hygienically  constructed  in  8  places,  fairly 
so  in  3,  while  in  o,  poorly  so.  The  process  was  found  in  all  places  to  be  done 
in  a  room  or  space  by  itself,  although,  in  many,  wide  doors  and  window-ways 
gave  free  air  access  to  adjoining  processes. 

Metallic  and  poisonous  dusts  contaminated  the  air  badly  in  6  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  all  the  balance.  Dust  and  waste-product  accumulations  upon  walls, 
windows,  ledges  and  floors  was  bad  in  4  places,  and  present  to  a  fair  extent  in 
the  balance.  Dry  sweeping  during  work  hours  was  frequently  noted.  Damp- 
ness is  not  a  feature  of  the  process.  Light  was  found  to  be  good  in  12  places 
and  only  fair  in  4  others.     Room  ventilation  was  excellent  in  1  place,  good  in 

11  others,  and  poor  in  4  places,  the  latter  due,  principally,  to  confined  quarters 
and  the  presence  of  fumes.  There  were  no  artificial  ventilating  systems  found. 
Temperature  is  not  a  factor  in  the  process.  The  work  is  not  fatiguing  to  any 
extent.  The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  highly  possible  in  4 
places,  fairly  so  in  8  and  practically  nil  in  4  others,  the  chief  hazards  being 
the  use  of  common  cups,  improper  or  absent  wash  places  and  closets,  spitting 
upon  dust  laden  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  the  lack  of  physical 
examination  of  employes.  Poisoning  by  lead  and  antimony  in  the  shape  of 
dust,  and  occasionally,  anilin  in  the  shape  of  oil  or  fumes,  was  easily  possible 
in  11  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  remaining  5.  The  chief  factors  were  the 
dustiness  of  the  work,  the  ignorance  o^  the  workmen,  lack  of  instructions,  the 


208 

wearing  of  mustaches  and  even  beards,  the  eating  and  chewing  at  work  and  in 
the  workrooms,  the  non-observance  of  personal  care,  lack  of  medical  super- 
vision, of  proper  gloves,  the  invariable  lack  of  respirators,  also  clothing 
supervision,  lockers,  washing  facilities,  and,  as  mentioned  above,  mechanical 
protection  from  the  dusts.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was 
decided  in  3  places,  and  fairly  so  in  8  others,  due  to  the  lack  of  good  drinking 
water  facilities,  the  subjection  to  the  dust  and  poisons  above  cited,  and  the 
belief  among  the  workers  that  alcohol  prevents  metal  poisoning ! 

In  no  place  were  all  the  workers  perfectly  healthy  appearing,  while  in  5, 
some  very  sickly  looking  men  were  seen.  The  chief  complaints  of  the  work- 
ing men,  where  they  could  speak  English,  were  dust  and,  occasionally,  fumes. 
Occupational  diseases  were  encountered  as  follows  in  8 -places: 

Lead  poisoning,  positive 22  cases. 

Lead  poisoning,  tentative 5  cases. 

Several  of  these  cases  had  partial  paralysis.  There  were,  in  addition,  2 
cases  of  acute  anilin  poisoning  reported,  but  not  seen  by  the  investigators,  and 
numbers  of  hearsay  cases  of  lead  poisoning.  Comments.  —  Much  greater 
supervision  of  workmen  is  necessary  in  this  process,  including  at  least  monthly 
examination  of  all  the  workers  for  signs  of  lead  poisoning,  while  we  feel  certain 
that  the  ventilating  engineer  could  render  the  work  practically  dustless.  The 
hazards  named  above  indicate  other  precautions. 

RUBBER. MIXING    MILLS. 

In  this  process,  the  previously  washed  and  dried  rubber  is  macerated  be- 
tween steel  rolls,  while,  at  intervals,  the  workman  pours  upon  the  rolls  a  scoop- 
ful  or  cupfull  of  the  ingredients,  delivered^to  him  from  the  compounding  room. 

Our  findings  covered  this  process  in  21  establishments,  employing  a  total 
of  525  wage-earners,  all  males.  The  attitude  toward  the  workers  was  good  in 
15  places,  and  at  least  fair  in  the  balance.  The  workers  were  English-speaking 
in  6  places,  but  in  the  remaining  the  large  majority  were  ignorant  foreigners. 
An  endeavor  to  retain  the  workers  at  the  process  was  evident  in  20  places  and 
not  so  in  1.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  and  ventilating  ducts,  some- 
times with  partial  curtains,  or  aprons,  placed  over  the  mixing  rolls,  and  with 
exhaust  fans,  were  found  in  3  places ;  7  other  places  had  exhaust  fans  in  the 
upper  parts  of  the  room,  the  value  of  which,  however,  was  questionable, 
since,  without  hoods  and  vents  over  the  mills,  these  only  tended  to  suck  up  the 
dust  into  the  air.  In  the  balance  of  the  places  (11)  there  were  no  health 
appliances  of  any  sort.  The  noon  hour  was  a  30  minute  recess  in  5  places,  45 
minutes  in  2  places,  and  5  allowed  1  hour.  Overtime  was  also  frequent  in  7 
places.  The  work  is  not  a  skilled  process.  Three  boys  under  20  were  observed, 
and  less  than  half  a  dozen  of  the  total  workers  were  over  45.  The  work  rooms 
were  constructed  hygienically  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  7,  and  not  so  in  4.  The 
process  was  practically  by  itself  in  14  places,  and,  in  the  balance,  was  in  the 
same  room  with  Rubber  Washing,  Calendering,  or  other  processes. 

Dust  in  the  atmosphere  was  observed  in  all  places.  In  10  it  was  present 
to  only  a  fair  degree,  while  in  11  places  it  was  bad.  The  dust  consisted  of  the 
dry  ingredients  (Al,  Fe,  Ca,  Zn,  Pb,  Sb,  Soapstone,  etc.),  which  go  into  rubber, — 


209 

lead  ranging,  according  to  one  analysis  of  the  finished  product,  as  high  as  25%. 
Dirt  and  waste-product  accumulations  were  evident  upon  the  floors,  machinery, 
lodges,  etc.,  in  all  places,  though  to  only  limited  extent  in  §  of  them.  Dry 
sweeping  and  considerable  negligence  obtained  in  7  places.  Dampness  is  not  a 
feature  of  the  process.  Light  was  good  in  16  places,  fair  in  4,  and  poor  in  1 
(located  in  basement).  Room  ventilation  was  good  in  2,  fair  in  15,  and  poor 
in  4  places,  the  latter  due  to  bad  location,  presence  of  burnt  rubber  odors,  the 
biting  fumes  of  antimony,  and  the  absence  of  a  room  ventilation  scheme.  Heat 
was  not  a  great  hazard,  although  the  warming  mills  rendered  the  temperature, 
fairly  hot  in  8  places,  and  badly  so  in  1  confined  place.  Washing  facilities  were 
meagre  as  a  rule.     The  work  is  not  overly  fatiguing.     The  work  day  was  found 


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Fig.  53.     Rubber  Manufacture  —  Mill  and  Calender  Room. 

From   right  to   left   are   two   mixing   mills,   a   refiner   with    a   conveyor   belt,   a 

warming  mill   and   another   mixing   mill.     The   3-cylinder-high 

calender  is  shown  at  rear. 


to  be  8  hours  in  1  place,  9  to  10  hours  in  20  places,  while  in  5  places  night  shifts 
worked  for  as  long  as  11  to  12^  hours.  Piece-work  was  the  rule,  limited  by 
certain  restrictions  to  safe-guard  quality  of  output.  Noise  was  ^Iso  something 
of  a  factor.  The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  very  possible  in  9 
places,  fairly  so  in  10  others,  and  practically  nil  in  1.  The  hazards  were  the 
use  of  common  cups,  promiscuous  spitting  upon  the  dusty  floors,  absence  of  cus- 
pidors, and  lack  of  physical  examination :  in  some  places  first-aid  provisions 
were  lacking.  Poisoning  was  about  as  great  a  hazard  as  in  the  compounding 
room,  due  to  the  same  ingredients,  which,  in  dust  form,  were  here  scooped 
out  of  conveyance  boxes  and  poured  upon  the  rolls.  Here  and  there  anilin  oil 
was    similarly   handled.     The    risks    of    poisoning   were    considered    bad    in    13 

14      O.   D. 


2IO 

places  and  fair  in  the  balance,  due,  principally,  to  the  ignorance  of  the  workers, 
lack  of  instructions,  wearing  of  mustaches,  eating  and  chewing  while  at  work 
and  in  the  work  room,  lack  of  personal  care,  interval  medical  examinations, 
adequate  washing  facilities,  and,  in  most  places,  lack  of  process-ventilation  ap- 
pliances to  remove  dusts  and  fumes.  The  odors  of  anilin  and  antimony  fumes 
were  plainly  detectable  in  several  places.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  greatly 
favored  in  4  places,  and  fairly  so  in  15  others,  due  to  improper  drinking  facilities 
and  the  various  hazards  above  cited. 

Appearances  of  the  workers  were  good  in  4  places,  but  in  the  balance 
some  sickly  lookly  individuals  were  observed.  Their  chief  complaints  were 
found  to  be  the  breathing  of  dust  and  fumes,  nausea  due  to  odors,  the  closeness 


Fig.  54.     Rubber  Mixing  Mills. 
There  is  a  row  of  these  mills  on  the  left  with  exhaust  hoods  to  remove 
poisonous   dusts   and    fumes.      Xote   air-conditioning  pipes   running   full   length 
of  room,  protected  machinery  and  batch  tables  within  easy  reach. 


and  stuffiness  of  the  workrooms,  and  the  symptoms  of  poisoning  —  usually  lead 
Our  investigators  discovered  30  cases  of  occupational  diseases  as  follows: 

Lead   poisoning,   positive 22  cases 

Lead   poisoning,   tentative 4  cases 

Dermatitis,    positive 1  case 

Anilin    poisoning,    positive 3  cases 

Comments.  —  While    means    of    confining    or    drawing    off    the    dusts    and 
fumes    from    each    milling    machine    are    necessary    precautions,    personal    care, 
■  properly  taught   and   supervised,  with  a   monthly  examination   of  the  workers, 
would  obviate  all  of  the  cases  of  lead  poisoning. 


211 


RUBBER.  CALENDERING      (INCLUDING      WARMING      MILLS). 

This  process  follows  that  of  the  mixing  mills.  Compounded  rubber  is 
introduced  into  the  rolls  of  the  warming  mills  and  of  the  calenders  which 
further  perfect  the  material  and  grade  it  down  into,  sheets  of  required  thick- 
ness. Oftentimes  also  the  calenders  are  used  to  press  the  rubber  into  cloth 
fabric,  which  is  called  "frictioning". 

In  12  places  in  which  this  process  was  investigated  there  were  793  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  The  welfare  attitude  of  the  employers  towards  the  workers 
was  considered  to  be  good  in  9  places,  fair  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  one.  In 
5   places  the   workers   were   of   an   intelligent   type,   while   in   7   they   were   very 


Fig.  55.     Rubber  Calender. 

Note  hood  above  'which   draws   off  heated   air,   odors   and    fumes.     Completely 
equipped  with  safety  devices,  including  rubber  floor  mat  "X". 


largely  ignorant  foreigners.  Retention  of  w^orkers  was  good  in  7  places  and  at 
least  fair  in  the  balance.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  hoods  and  stacks 
with  exhaust  fans,  covering  the  calenders  and  mills,  were  excellent  in  2  places. 
While  these  were  absent  from  the  balance,  other  health  appliances  such  as  room 
exhaust  fans  and  ventilation  schemes  were  present  in  5  places.  In  5  others  no 
attempts  were  made  to  remove  dusts  or  fumes  arising  from  the  process.  The 
day  averaged  from  10  to  11  hours  in  8  plants,  with  30  minutes  for  noon  in  10 
plants.  In  the  others  the  day  period  was  8  to  10  hours,  and  the  noon  recess  1 
hour.  Some  overtime  was  the  rule  in  3  places.  A  certain  per  cent,  of  men  at 
this  process  were  at  least  semi-skilled,  but  about  80  %  were  unskilled.  Rarely 
were  men  over  40  years  of  age  seen.     There  were,  however,  very  few  youths 


212 

under  20.  Working  quarters  were  modern  and  of  hygienic  construction  in  9 
places,  fairly  so  in  1  other,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  2,  due  to  low  ceilings, 
crowded  machinery  and  the  presence  of  ulterior  processes.  The  process  was  in 
the  same  room  as  the  mixing  mills  in  5  places,  though,  in  some,  well  separated. 

A  fair  amount  of  soapstone  dust  was  present  in  the  atmosphere  in  all 
places.  In  most  of  the  places  it  could  'be  considered  almost  negligible  as  a 
health-hazard.  Dust  accumulations  about  the  floors  and  ledges  were  present 
in  all  places,  although  daily  cleaning,  usually  by  wet  methods,  was  the  rule. 
Dampness  was  no  factor.  Nine  of  the  places  were  well-lighted,  and  3  only 
fairly  so.  Room  ventilation  was  good  in  3  places,  but  only  fair  in  9  others,  due 
to  poor  location  and  inadequate  or  absent  ventilating  appliances.  Heat  from  the 
rolls  was  found  bad  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  5  others,  and  a  negligible  factor 
in  the  remaining  5.  Fatigue  factors  were  moderate  and  in  the  shape  of  limited 
piece-work,  monotonous  hum  of  machinery,  with  evident  speeding  up  in  at 
least  1  place.  The  process  is  also  fairly  noisy.  The  danger  of  contracting 
communicable  diseases  was  considered  bad  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  7  others  and 
practically  nil  in  the  3  remaining.  The  hazards  here  were  the  use  of  common 
drinking  cups,  improper  washing  places  and  toilets,  spitting  on  the  dusty  floors, 
the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  lack  of  physical  examinations  and  of  first-aid 
provisions.  Occupational  poisoning  is  hardly  a  hazard  in  this  process,  but 
dermatitis  or  eczema,  due  to  the  dust  and  to  the  handling  of  rubber,  may 
aflflict  the  more  susceptible.  On  the  other  hand  benzine  fumes  were  fairly 
strong  in  2  places.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  favored  in  8  places  because  of  in- 
efficient drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  influence  of  the  factors  above  men- 
tioned. 

In  only  3  places  were  all  workers  healthy  appearing.  Complaints  of  the 
workmen  were  the  benzine  fumes,  a  considerable  part  of  which  came  from  open- 
top  cement  cans.  These  fumes,  because  of  the  heat,  volatilized  greatly.  In  most 
places  benzine  was  little  used  in  the  process.  No  cases  of  occupational  poison- 
ing were  found. 

RUBBER. TIRE-BUILDING. 

This  process  consists  in  the  making  of  casings  for  automobile  and  bicycle 
tires  by  the  applying  of  layers  of  rubber  fabric  upon  wheel-shaped  molds;  to 
these  are  cemented  the  beads,  cover  layers,  etc.  It  may  be  all  hand  work,  the 
operator  sitting  or  standing  before  the  mold,  mounted  upright  on  a  pedestal,  and 
carefully  stretching  the  fabric  as  he  revolves  the  "wheel".  In  some  places  more 
than  half  of  the  work  was  being  done  by  mechanical  application  of  the  fabric 
to  the  molds,  called  "machine  building". 

This  process  was  investigated  in  13  places  employing  4,135  wage-earners,  all 
males.  The  workers  are  among  the  most  skilled  in  the  rubber  industry,  while 
the  attitude  of  employers  toward  them  seemed  to  be  excellent  in  12  places  and  at 
least  fair  in  the  other,  so  that  the  retention  of  the  men  seemed  to  be  good 
every  place.  Health  appliances  consist  of  means  of  ridding  the  atmosphere 
of  benzine  fumes  and  of  reducing  the  laborious  character  of  the  work.  In  3 
plants,  only,  were  attempts  made  to  limit  -the  fumes  by  so  much  as  using 
covered  containers.  Privileges  of  sick  benefits  were  available  to  part  of  the 
workers  in  2  plants.  The  work  day  consisted  of  8  hours  in  2  places  and  9  to 
10  hour  shifts  in  8  places  and  10  to  13  hours  in  3  places,  with  a  noon  recess 
of  1  hour  in  2  places  and  30  minutes  in  10  places.     In  3  places,  overtime  was  an 


213 

occasional  requirement.  Full}-  95%  of  the  workers  were  between  20  and  40 
years  of  age ;  there  were  some  youths  under  20,  while  older  men  were  usually 
found  working  in  small  plants.  The  work  rooms  were  hygienically  constructed 
in  11  places,  but  not  so  in  two.  Many  half-auxiliary  processes,  such  as  bead- 
making,  buffing,  book-making,  and  inner  tube  making,  were,  as  a  rule,  carried 
on  in  the  same  room.    This  helped  to  add  to  the  benzine  content  of  the  air. 

Dust  in  the  shape  of  soap-stone  was  present  to  a  fair  extent  in  all  places. 
The  quarters  were  kept  well  cleaned m  11  of  the  places,  while  dust  and  rubber 
scraps  were  allowed  to  collect  in  the  other  two. 

Dampness  was  no  factor.  Light  was  invariably  good.  In  all  places  the 
odor  of  benzine  was  detectable  and  in  5  its  concentration  was  bad.  Invariably 
open  windows  were  depended  upon  largely  for  ventilation.  Fans  and  air- 
agitators  were  uniformly  absent  as  were  also  room  air-exhaust  schemes.  Two 
places  were  equipped  with  air-conditioning  systems  for  use  in  winter  for  sup- 
plying tempered  air,  but  these  did  not  remove  contaminated  air.  Heat  was  no 
factor.  On  the  other  hand  the  effects  of  cold  draughts  from  open  windows 
were  a  hazard  in  practically  all  places.  Fatigue  was  more  than  a  fair  hazard 
in  most  places  due  to  hurrying  piecework  and,  in  some  places,  constant  standing 
in  strained  positions,  faulty  postures,  jarring  processes,  pressures  against  the 
body,  and  the  lifting  and  carrying  of  heavy  molds.  The  contraction  of  coni- 
)nunicable  diseases  was  favored  in  3  places,  fairly  -so  in  5  others,  and  could  be 
considered  negligible  in  the  remaining '5.  The  chief  reasons  were  the  use  of 
common  drinking  cups,  inadequate  washing  facilities  and  closets,  spitting  upon  the 
floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  crowding  together  of 
large  numbers  of  workmen  without  medical  supervision.  In  some  places 
adequate  fist-aid  arrangements  were  absent,  though  bruises  and  sprains  are 
frequent  in  the  process.  There  is  some  likelihood  of  the  direct  spreading  of 
venereal  disease  through  the  common  handling  of  the  same  article.  The  poisons 
CO  be  feared  are  benzine,  antimony  and  perhaps  lead  (the  last  two  from  handlin-? 
rubberized  fabric).  In  no  place  was  benzine  odor  absent,  while  in  9  of  the  13  it 
was  strong  enough  to  cause  symptoms.  The  process  necessitates  using  it  with 
sponges  in  an  open  manner,  and  it  is  also  a  solvent  for  the  cements  which  are 
applied,  usually,  by  the  bare  hand,  occasionally  also  with  brushes,  hence  its  con- 
trol is  difficult.  Continual  changing  of  the  air  in  the  room  by  mechanical 
means,  air-agitators  and  the  keeping  of  the  artificial  temperature  down  in  the 
winter  months  would  help  greatly;  also  the  substitution  of  closed  containers 
witli  a  pressure-valve  benzine  emitter  in  place  of  the  open  cups  now  used. 
'Antimony  dermatitis  was  an  occasional  complaint.  Industrial  alcoholism  was 
favored  in  most  of  the  plants  through  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities, 
particularly,  when  combined  with  the  depressing  effects  of  benzine  fumes  and 
hard  work. 

In  this  large  body  of  workmen  it  was  of  course  possible  to  find  some 
anemic  or  sickly  looking  workers  in  practically  all  the  places.  The  chief  com- 
plaints were  headache,  dizziness  and  stupefaction,  due  to  breathing  benzine 
fumes.  Many  claim  that  this  bothered  them  only  at  first.  We  have  commented 
upon  this  toleration  to  poisons  in  a  previous  Part  as  decidedly  unphysiological. 
Many  cases  of  anemia  were  seen  which  were  undoubtedly  due  to  the  chronic 
effects  of  benzine.  The  workers'  disregard  of  the  fumes  and  the  tendency  of 
many  of  them  to  scoff  at  their  effects  is  unfortunate  and  can  only  be  met  by 
enlightment,  particularly  upon   degenerative  diseases. 


214 


RUBBER. STEAM   VULCANIZING. 

This  process  is  also  called  "curing",  and  in  many  plants  the  rubber  tires 
were  subjected  to  two  steam  cures,  the  first,  when  the  tire  was  partly  built, 
called  "semi-curing",  and  the  second,  when  the  tire  was  completely  built,  "final 
curing".  Inasmuch  as  the  curing  used  to  be  done  in  cylinders  sunk  in  pits  in 
the  ground  (usually  in  the  basement),  the  "semi-cure"  process  room  retains  its 
name,  "the  pit".  Tire  casings  are  placed  in  iron  molds  within  the  steam 
cylinders,  steam  admitted  for  a  proper  length  of  time,  then  shut  off  and  the 
cured  tires  mechanically  removed. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  15  places,  engaging  733  wage-earners,  all 
males.  The  welfare  attitude  towards  workers  seemed  good  in  10  places  and 
at  least  fair  in  the  balance.  The  workers  were  of  an  intelligent  American  type 
in  6  smaller  places,  while  the  balance  (mostly  large  places)  employed  a  good 
grade  of  foreign  labor.  The  retention  of  workers  seemed  good  in  6  places,  fair 
in  8  more,  and  in  1  not  so.  "  Health  appliances  consisting  of  a  hood  and  vent 
stack  over  the  openings  of  the  cylinders,  air  conditioning  system  for  the  work 
room,  or  air  agitators  and  floor  treads  or  drains  to  remove  water,  were  good  in 
3  places,  fair  in  4  places,  and  all  entirely  absent  in  8  places.  In  some  of  the 
better  places,  boots,  aprons,  and  gloves  were  provided,  while  others  used  a  pro- 
cedure which  permitted  a  very  little  escape  of  steam,  water  and  excessive  heat. 
The  work  day  was  8  hours  in  2  places,  9-10  hours  in  13  places ;  the  noon  recess 
was  1  hour  in  8  places,  and  I  hour  in  11  places.  Overtime  was  frequent  in  5 
places.  The  work  is  not  skilled  beyond  the  immediate  supervision  of  the 
foreman.  Very  few  workers  were  seen  over  40  years  of  age,  and  practically 
none  under  20.  The  work  quarters  were  of  hygienic  construction  in  7  places, 
fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  poorly  so  in  the  remaining  6,  due,  principally,  to  low 
ceilings  and  crowded  floor  or  basement,  while  in  2  places  1  or  more  additional 
kinds  of  work  were  being  carried  on. 

Dust,  due  to  soapstone,  was  a  bad  factor  in  8  places,  and  fairly  so  in.  4 
others,  while  in  the  remaining  8  there  was  none,  due  to  a  difference  in  procedure. 
In  1  place  a  laudable  measure  was  the  wetting  down  of  the  soapstone  used. 
Dust  and  waste-product  accunmlations  were  bad  in  3  places,  fairly  so  in  4 
others  and  absent  in  the  balance.  Water,  steam  and  humidity  were  bad  in  3 
places,  fairly  so  in  8  places,  but  practically  absent  in  the  remaining  4.  Light 
was  good  in  9  places,  fair  in  5,  and  poor  in  1.  Room  ventilation  was -good  in  5, 
fair  in  4,  and  poor  in  4  places,  the  latter  due  largely  to  location,  resulting  in 
closeness,  stuffiness,  and  still  air;  also  to  the  absence  of  artificial  ventilation 
schemes.  Heat  was  determined  as  bad  in  4  places,  fair  in  7,  and  satisfactory  in 
4.  In  only  1  place  was  a  shower  bath  at  hand.  Cold  and  draughts  were  bad  in 
2  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  but  little  factors  in  the  remaining  9.  The 
work  is  rather  laborious  and  on  this  account  big  powerful  workmen  were 
usually  seen.  In  three  places  the  piecework  was  promoting  exhaustion,  while  in 
1  large  plant  the  men,  though  working  in  8-hour  shifts,  were  hurrying  along, 
many  of  them,  half  stripped,  and  dashing  from  steam  heated  to  draughty  areas 
in  what  appeared  to  be  a  killing  pace.  Some  places  were  very  noisy.  The  con- 
traction of  communicable  diseases  was  highly  possible  in  5  places  and  fairly  so 
in  8  others,  and  practically  nil  in  2  others.  The  hazards  were  common  drinking 
cups,  improper  washing  places  and  closets,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of 
cuspidors,    lack    of    first-aid    provisions    and    of    the    physical    examination    of 


215 

workers.  Venereal  diseases  have  a  slight  chance  for  spreading  due  to  the  com- 
mon handhng  of  the  same  objects.  Poisoning  is  not  a  real  factor  in  the  process, 
except  the  escape  of  fuel  gas  fumes,  which  seemed  bad  in  5  places,  fair  in  5,  and 
no  factor  in  5  others.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  much  favored  in  2  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  7  others,  due,  not  so  much  to  faulty  drinking  water  facilities,  as, 
to  the  depressing  influences  of  humidity,  dust  and  fatigue. 

In  6  places  no  sickly  looking  workers  were  observed,  but  in  the  remaining 
9,  one  or  more  of  such  should  at  least  have  had  a  physical  examination.  In 
several  places  complaints  were  made  of  the  heat,  or  cases  of  heat-prostration, 
and  of  heat  colic  and  cramps.  Comments.  —  In  certain  places  the  escape  of 
water  and  steam  should  be  better  controlled,  and,  where  locations  have  'been 
unfortunate,  high  temperature  should  be  contravened  by  air  blasts,  electric  fans, 
etc.,  as  is  done  in  steel  mills  and  elsewhere.  Other  corrections  are  suggested  in 
the  hazards  above  mentioned. 

RUBBER. DIPPING. 

In  this  process,  molds  of  gloves,  finger  cots,  etc.,  are  dipped,  usually 
mechanically,  into  vats  containing  rubber  dissolved  in  benzine,  Whereby,  when 
the  o'bjects  are  raised  from  the  vats,  a  thin  coating  of  rubber  adheres  to  the 
mold.  This  process  is  repeated  several  times,  according  to  the  thickness  of 
objects  required.     Great  precautions  are  necessary  to  avoid  fire  and  explosions. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  11  establishments  in  which  49  wage- 
earners,  all  males,  were  found  so  engaged.  The  workers  were  either  Ameri- 
cans or  foreigners  of  fair  intelligence  in  all  places.  Retention  at  the  process 
was  fair  in  6  places  and  good  in  4.  Health  appliances,  which  consist  in  the 
provision  of  hoods  with  exhaust  pipes,  curtains,  air  forced  into  the  rooms 
under  pressure  and  slatted  floors  with  exhausts  beneath  were  found  good  in 
5  places,  fair  in  5  more  and  absent  in  the  remaining  1.  The  workday  was 
10  hours  in  10  places  and  9i  in  1  place ;  the  noon  recess  was  J/2  hour  in  9 
places  and  1  hour  in  2  places.  In  addition,  the  work  is  of  such  a  nature 
that  an  employe  is  required  to  be  within  the  room  only  a  few  minutes  at  a 
time.  Probably  from  1/3  to  ^  of  the  workday  is  spent  witljin  the  dipping 
room.  Overtime  was  resorted  to  in  3  places.  The  work  requires  no  par- 
ticular skill.  All  workers  were  under  40  years  of  age.  The  rooms  were  of 
hygienic  construction  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  3  places  and  not  so  in  the  remain- 
ing 4.  The  quarters  were  always  spacious  in  proportion  to  the  num'ber  of 
workers  employed.  In  5  places  cement  mixing, .  vapor  cures  and  some  other 
processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  room.    These  were  all  small  places. 

Dust  is  foreign  to  the  process  and  was  not  noted  in  9  places,  but  in  2 
others  a  considerable  amount  of  soapstone  dust  was  observed  from  other  pro- 
cesses. The  quarters  were  clean  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others  and  not  so 
in  the  remaining  2.  Dampness  was  no  factor.  Light  was  good  in  7  places  and 
only  fair  in  the  remaining.  In  all  places  benzine  odor  was  plainly  detectable. 
This  amounted  to  a  fair  health-hazard  in  8  places  and  a  bad  risk  in  3.  Its 
concentration  was  in  proportion  to  the  absence  of  health, appliances  to  remove 
or  confine  the  vapors.  Although  the  process  requires  warmth,  this  was  not 
enough  to  be  an  unhealthy  factor  in  but  1  place.  The  rooms  were  usually 
close  and  still  in  order  to  keep  out  dust.  Fatigue  was  no  factor.  The  con- 
traction of  communicable  diseases  was  a  fair  hazard  in  8  places  and  especially 


2l6 

so  in  1,  due  to  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  improper  wash-places  and 
closets,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  some  common  handling  of 
articles  and  the  lack  of  medical  supervision.  In  the  remaining  2  places  such 
factors  were  nil.  Benzine  was  the  only  poisonous  substance  used.  It  con- 
stituted a  bad  hazard  in  7  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  remaining  4,  especially 
if  an  employe  were  required  to  remain  more  than  15  minutes  or  so  in  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  uncovered  dipping  vats  and  the  dripping  frames 
above.  The  process  rarely  required  this.  When  not  in  use  each  separate  vat 
was  hooded  to  prevent  waste  by  evaporation.  Industrial  alcoholism  was 
somewhat   favored   in  7   places   and   very  much   so   in   3   others,   by  the   lack  of 


Fig.  56.     Rubber  "Dipping  Room." 

Gloves  are  made  by  dipping  molds  into  solutions  of  rubber  dissolved  in 
benzine.  The  benzine  tanks  are  covered  when  not  in  use.  The  floor  is  latticed 
with  an  exhaust  system  beneath  to  draw  off  the  heavy  benzine  fumes. 


adequate  drinking  water  facilities  and  the  depressing  influences  of  the  heat  and 
vapors  above  described. 

In  practically  all  places  some  pale  and  unhealthy  looking  workers  were 
seen,  especially  among  the  older  employes.  The  chief  complaints  of  the 
workers  were  dizziness,  loss  of  appetite,  tiredness  and,  occasionally,  "benzine 
jags,"  due  to  breathing  the  fumes.  One  positive  and  2  tentative  cases  of 
chronic  benzine  poisoning  were  seen.  Comments.  — Heahh  appliances  (see 
above)  should  be  provided  in  all  places  where  dipping  is  done  on  any  scale. 
While  in  the  dipping  room,  and  for  a  few  minutes  before,  the  exhaust  ventila- 
tion  system   should   be   set   in   motion. 


217 


RUBBER. BUFFING. 

In  this  process  rubber  tire  casings  partly  built  are  roughened  up  by  re- 
volving them  on  a  wheel  and  holding  a  coarse  file  against  them.  Other  semi- 
hard rubber  objects  are  also  buffed,  usually  by  pressing  them  against  a  revolving 
emery  wheel.  The  object  of  roughing  up  the  rubber  is  to  give  surface  for 
the  cement  which  is  later  applied  in  order  to  put  on  further  coats  or  covers. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  6  establishments  employing  a  total  of  168 
males  and  6  females.  The  workers  were  largely  foreigners.  The  work  seemed 
uninviting  and  retention  of  workers  at  the  process  was  not  good.  But  10 
of  the  entire  number  of  workers,  including  the  6  females,  had  any  mechanical 
protection  from  rubber  dust.  The  workday  varied  from  10  to  12|-  hours ;  the 
noon  recess  being  Yz  hour  in  5  places  and  1  hour  in  1.  The  work  was  unskilled. 
But  4  workers  were  observed  over  40  years  of  age,  while  a  considerable  number 
were  under  20.  The  work-place  was  hygienically  constructed  in  4  places  and 
only  fairly  so  in  2  others.  It  was  in  the  same  room  with  tirebuilding  in  half 
of  the  places. 

Opportunities  for  inhaling  rubber  dust  were  bad  in  4  places  and  fair  in 
the  2  remaining.  But  1  place  supplied  respirators  and  these  were  unwillingly 
used.  Many  of  the  workers  were  as  black  as  coal  heavers,  due  to  the  dust. 
In  all  places  except  1,  the  dust  accumulations  on  the  floor  and  vicinity  were 
considerable.  Here  and  there  persons  were  constantly  sweeping  up  and  using 
only  a  dry  method.  In  some  places  the  rubber  was  buffed  in  a  semi-moistened 
condition  so  that  dust  was  very  much  reduced.  Dampness  was  no  factor. 
Light  was  good  in  all  places.  Temperature  was  no  factor.  The  general  char- 
acter of  the  air  in  the  room,  outside  of  the  dust  factor,  was  good  in  only 
1/3  of  the  places.  Fatigue  was  a  fair  factor  in  all  places,  due  to  the  arduous 
character  of  the  work,  piecework,  speeding  up,  monotony,  constant  standing 
(except  for  a  very  few,  including  the  6  females),  constant  strain,  the  very 
faulty  postures  of  leaning  over  with  a  file  pressed  across  the  thigh,  the  jarring 
character  of  the  work  and  the  steady  application.  The  contraction  of  covi- 
municable  diseases  was  a  fair  to  bad  risk  in  2/3  of  the  places,  due  to  the  use 
of  common  drinking  cups,  improper  wash-places  and  closets,  spitting  upon  the 
dusty  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  lack  of  physical  examinations,  medical 
supervision,  goggles,  gloves  and  first-aid  provisions.  Poisoning  from  lead 
which  is  in  the  compounded  rubber  is  a  possibility,  while  benzine  fumes  were 
present  to  a  fair  extent  in  most  places.  The  risk  of  lead  poisoning  may  be 
considered  as  in  about  direct  proportion  to  the  dust  inhaled  and  ingested.  The 
workers  could  be  very  little  blamed  for  personal  carelessness  where  the  dust 
flew  all  over  them.  Proper  washing  facilities,  lockers  and  eating  quarters  were 
present  in  but  1  place.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  favored  by  such  factors  as 
fatigue,  dust,  and  perhaps  poisoning. 

Many  of  the  workers  appeared  very  tired.  They  complained  bitterly  in 
some  instances  of  'rubber  dust,  "friction"  smoke  and  long  hours.  In  most 
places  the  process  was  acknowledged  health-hazardous  by  the  management, 
while  several  places  were  arranging  for  dust  control  systems.  One  questionable 
act  of  the  workers  was  the  holding  of  a  bare  handful  of  cement  dissolved  in 
l)cnzine,  and  in  at  least  one  instance,  benzol  while  applxin.!.;  it  to  the  revolving 
surface  of  the  tire. 


2l8 


RUBBER. INNER  TUBES  FOR  TIRES. 


Inner  tubes  are  made,  generally,  of  almost  pure  rubber  by  lapping  long 
strips  of  rubber  around  an  iron  rod  of  the  proper  size,  or  'by  butting  the  edges 
together  on  a  table  top.  The  rubber  is  made  to  adhere  to  itself  by  moistening 
with  benzine  or  benzine  cement  (rarely  benzol).  The  long  tube  is  next  wrapped 
or  'bandaged  with  a  wet  strip  of  cloth  and  then  steam  cured  (hazard  somewhat 
less  than  steam  vulcanizing,  described  elsewhere),  after  which  the  ends  are 
spliced  together,  as  a  rule,  by  a  cold  cure  process.  Although  a  difficult 
procedure,  steam  cure  for  splicing  is  sometimes  used.  Only  the  first  process, 
viz.,  lapping  (?r  edge  butting,  is  considered  here. 

This  was  investigated  in  8  plants  and  engaged  389  males  and  201  females, 
usually  only  the  one  or  the  other  sex  being  employed  in  a  given  plant.  The 
work  requires  a  little  skill  and  a  fairly  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  the 
rule,  the  females  in  particular  being  largely  so.  The  workers  appeared  to  stay 
at  the  process  fairly  well  in  but  3  places.  Health  appliances  to  remove  or 
confine  benzine  fumes  were  absent  in  all  places.  The  work  day  was  8  hours  in 
1  place,  and  between  9  and  10  hours  in  all  the  balance,  with  a  half  hour  noon 
recess.  Overtime  was  frequent  in  3  places.  A  vast  majority  of  the  workers 
were  youths,  and  men  and  women  under  40  years  of  age ;  not  more  than  10 
were  above  this  age.  The  work  rooms  were  constructed  hygienically  in  6 
places  and  fairly  so  in  the  2  others.  In  3  places  several  other  processes  were 
in  vogue  in  the  same  room. 

Soapstone  dust  was  a  fair  hazard  in  6  of  the  8  places.  The  cleanliness 
of  the  quarters  was  good  in  5  and  fain  in  the  other  3  places.  Dampness  w,as 
no  factor.  Light  was  good  in  all  places.  The  general  character  of  the  atmo- 
sphere was  good  in  1  place,  .fair  in  3,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  4,  due  to  the 
closing  of  windows  to  keep  out  dusts  and  drafts,  and  to  the  absence  of  any 
artificial  ventilating  systems,  fans,  etc.  Heat  is  not  a  factor  of  the  process 
itself,  but  in  1  place  the  quarters  were  unusually  warm,  due  to  their  location 
over  the  vulcanizing  room  below.  Fatigue  is  a  fair  hazard,  due  to  piece-work, 
constant  standing,  or  stools  (for  females  only)  without  backs,  and  monotony. 
The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad  risk  in  at  least  2  places 
and  fairly  so  in  4  others,  due  to  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  improper 
wash-places  and  closets,  spitting  upon  the  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors  and 
lack  of  medical  supervision.  Poisoning,  due  to  benzine  and  occasionally  to 
benzol,  was  a  'bad  hazard  in  6  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  other  2.  Benzine 
and  benzine  cement  sat  about  in  open  cups  into  which  brushes  or  sponges  were 
dipped.  Workers,  as  a  rule,  ate  in  the  workrooms.  It  was  claimed  in  most 
places  that  drafts  could  not  be  allowed,  but  in  other  places  the  windows  were 
wide  open.  Industrial  alcoholism  and  coffeeism  were  incited  in  proportion  to 
the  extent  of  poor  drinking  water  facilities,  the  dust,  fumes  and  fatigue. 

In  but  2  small  places  were  all  the  workers  of  health3r  appearance.  In 
the  larger  places  a  few  to  a  considerable  num'ber  of  pale  looking  workers  were 
seen.  The  workers  complained  variously  of  the  efifects  of  the  fumes,  of  the 
stuff^y  and  close  character  of  the  workrooms  and  occasionally  of  the  dust. 
Benzine  stupor  and  fainting  spells  were  common,  especially  among  the  females 
and  those  new  at  the  work.  It  was  said  that  many  girls  and  sometimes  men 
never  came  back  after  the  first  day  or  two.  In  1  large  place  each  girl  averaged 
1   day  a  week  off  on   account   of   sickness.     Sore   throat,   frequent  headaches, 


219 

dizziness  and  tiredness,  and  other  symptoms  of  acute  or  chronic  benzine 
poisoning  were  common  complaints.  Benzine  dermatitis  was  occasionally  en- 
countered. A  typical  form  of  complaint  was  that  in  which  the  workers  said 
that  physicians  appeared  unable  to  better  their  ills.  In  1  place  a  fainting  girl 
was  being  rushed  to  the  windows  during  the  time  of  our  inspection.  Comments. 
Beyond  question,  benzol  should  not  be  permitted  in  the  way  in  which  it  is 
used  (fortunately  rarely)  in  this  process.  All  benzine  and  benzine  cements 
should  be  kept  in  closed  containers  with  some  sort  of  automatic-valve  emitter. 
The  room  temperature  should  be  kept  not  over  68°.  Some  means  of  changing 
the  air  in  the  workrooms  should  be  provided  and  everything  done  to  keep 
down  the  concentration  of  benzine  fumes.  Finally,  sickly  and  tuberculously 
inclined  persons  should  be  kept  out  of  the  process  through  medical  super- 
vision. 

RUBBER. SPECIALTY    MAKING. 

(Including   Mechanical   Goods,    Drug    Sundries,    Accessories,    Etc.) 

As  "almost  anything  can  be  made  out  of  rubber,"  a  vast  number  of  em- 
ployes are  engaged  in  more  or  less  factory  types  of  processes  included  i:nder 
the  general  heading  above.  As  a  rule,  their  health  risks  were  of  a  genera', 
type  plus  the  breathing  of  benzine  fumes  and  soapstone  dust.  The  articles 
made  concern  all  manner  of  soft  and  hard  rubber,  and  rubber  fabric  materials, 
from  tiny  rubber  bands  and  washers,  finishing-up  processes  on  gloves,  toy 
balloons,  etc.,  the  assembling  of  boots  and  shoes,  rain  coats,  etc.,  to  the  fabricat- 
ing of  fire  hose  and  enormous  belts  for  power  transmission  purposes.  In  the 
small  work  many  females  were  employed,  while  in  the  rougher  and  larger 
work,  males  were  engaged. 

This  class  of  processes  was  investigated  in  22  establishments  in  which 
2,912  males  and  1,668  females  were  so  engaged.  A  good  attitude  seemed  to 
exist  between  employers  and  enfiployes  in  15  of  these  places.  While  a  large 
number  of  more  or  less  ignorant  foreigners  were  employed,  still  the  usual  type 
of  fairly  intelligent  people,  particularly  females,  was  the  rule.  In  some 
processes  workers  did  not  appear  to  remain  long  because  of  various  objec- 
tionable features.  Where  health  appliances  were  plainly  needed,  but  2  places 
were  adequately  equipped,  6  others  fairly  so,  while  14  had  given  practically  no 
attention  to  such  features.  The  work  day  varied  considerably :  in  20  places 
it  was  from  9  to  10  hours,  and  in  2  between  10  and  12  hours;  the  noon  recess 
was  1/2  hour  in  15  places,  54  hour  in  1  place,  and  1  hour  in  4  places.  Practically 
all  of  the  workers  were  unskilled  labor.  A  considerable  number  of  youths 
between  16  and  20  were  employed,  probably  more  than  the  number  of  workers 
who  exceeded  40  years  of  age. 

Considering  these  processes  grouped  by  plants,  our  summaries  show  the 
following : 

Dust  was  a  negligible  hazard  in  4  plants,  a  fair  hazard  in  12  and  a  bad 
hazard  (at  least  for  some  processes)  in  the  remaining  6.  Invariably  this  was 
due  to  soapstone ;  occasionally,  to  rubber  ingredients.  Quarters  were  kept 
cleanly  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in  8  more  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  4.  Damp- 
ness was  no  factbr  in  18  places,  but  constituted  a  fair  hazard  in  3  others  and 
was  especially  bad  in  1.  It  was  due  to  the  escape  of  water  and  steam.  In 
17  plants  light  was  good,  in  8  only  fair  and  in  2  bad.  The  air  condition  of 
the  work  rooms  was  satisfactory  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  15  others,  and  bad  in 


220 

the  remaining  6.  The  reasons  for  this  were  poor  location,  closeness  and 
stuffiness,  lack  of  room  ventilating  systems,  and  of  local  exhausts  in  many 
places  where  they  should  have  been  provided.  Heat  was  no  factor  in  17 
places,  but  was  a  fair  to  bad  ha:^ard  in  some  processes  in  the  balance.  Cold, 
due  to  the  opening  of  windows  for  ventilation,  inadequate  heating  facilities, 
sedentary  work  in  drafty  places,  and  going  in-  and  out  of  hot  quarters  was  a 
factor    in    some    places.     Fatigue    was    a    considerable    factor    in    6    places,    and 


Fig.  57.     Making  Rubber  Specialties. 

This  room  is  well  lighted,  has  an  air-conditioner  which  changes  the  air 
continually,  thus  removing  benzine  fumes.  (Some  of  the  girls  are  not  faced 
well  as  respects  light). 


more  or  less  so  in  a  number  of  others,  due,  principally,  to  the  unlimited  hurry 
of  piece-work,  constant  standing,  use  of  stools  without  backs,  faulty  postures, 
jarring  processes  and,  occasionally,  loud  noises.  The  liability  to  the  contrac- 
tion of  commimicahlc  diseases  was  a  bad  risk  in  parts  of  5  places,  fairly  so  in 
10  others,  but  well  controlled  in  the  remaining  7.  The  factors  were :  the 
crowding  together  of  employes,  sometimes  in  large  numbers  in  rather  limited 
spaces,  often  quite  filled  with  work  benches,  shelvings,  machinery  and  stock; 
the  use  of  common  towels  and  drinking  cups ;  improper  wash-places  and  closets  ; 


221 

spitting  upon  the  floors;  absence  of  cuspidors;  frequent  trivial  injuries  without 
lirs,t  aid  provisions ;  and  the  absence  of  gloves.  Occasionally,  goggles  were 
needed,  and,  more  especially,  medical  supervision  to  keep  out  persons  having 
communicable  diseases.  The  more  or  less  common  handling  of  articles,  and 
the  working  together  of  both  sexes  were  factors,  although  in  no  place  was  any- 
thing suggestive  of  an  immoral  atmosphere  observed.  The  chief  poison  to 
which  vast  numbers  of  these  employes  were  exposed  was  benzine.  Occa- 
sionally, also,  benzol,  sulphur  chloride,  carbon  bisulphide,  ammonia,  anilin 
dyes,  wood  alcohol,  and  other  less  commonly  used  substances.  In  but  one 
plant  were  all  employes  satisfactorily  protected  from  all  forms  of  poisoning. 
In  7  others  risks  were  not  bad,  while  in  the  14  remaining,  acute  poisoning, 
especially  from  benzine,  was  very  possible.  Practically  all  contributable  factors 
discussed  under  poisons  in  Part  III.  upon  principles  of  industrial  hygiene 
were  encountered,  sometimes  one  and  sometimes  another,  and  sometimes  many 
in  the  same  establishment.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  favored  in  19  places,  2 
especially  so,  due  to  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities,  added  to  which  the 
depressing  effects  of  the  hazards  above  cited  should  be  taken  into  account. 

In  this  vast  number  of  .people,  it  was  natural  that  some  unhealthy  looking 
persons  should  be  encountered,  particularly  where  large  numbers  were  em- 
ployed. In  6  plants,  however,  all  appeared  well,  but  in  the  remaining  16, 
one  or  in  some  cases,  many  were  seen  who  were  unquestionably  in  the  need 
of  a  physical  examination  to  determine  their  health  status,  and,  indeed,  their 
safety  towards  fellow  employes.  A  summary  of  the  complaints  encountered 
by  talking  to  work  people  constitutes  the  following :  dust  and  fumes  causing 
nausea,  dizziness,  fainting,  headaches,  loss  of  appetite,  loss  of  weigh,t,  tired- 
ness, "benzine  jags,"  eczema,  coughs  and  colds,  and  "can't  work  long  at  this 
until  I  am  sick  and  have  to  lay  off  for  a  few  days."  In  some  places  workers 
were  hard  to  retain  if  other  work  was  obtainable.  Females  were  naturally 
worse  afifected.  Ten  cases  of  chronic  benzine  (and  perhaps  benzol)  poisoning 
were  seen  in  4  plants.  Comments.  —  Where  so  many  health-hazards  are 
involved,  it  is  well  to  aim  at  a  principal  one  if  such  a  one  exists,  and 
endeavor  to  control  it.  Usually  such  a .  principle  results  in  reducing  other 
bad  features.  In  this  class  of  processes  the  chief  aim  should  be  directed 
first  at  a  better  control  of  benzine  fumes.  While  these  are  not  a  deadly 
poison  and  produce  no  more  than  a  temporary  "drunk,"  and,  perhaps,  uncon- 
sciousness, they  are,  when  inhaled  or  absorbed,  destructive  to  the  blood  cor- 
puscles and  fat-absorbent  in  their  effects  upon  the  system.  Again,  it  must  be 
said  that  toleration  to  such  a  hazard  is  beyond  the  limits  of  physiology.  Inef- 
ficient hoods  and  exhaust  systems,  absence  of  such  systems,  failure  to  keep 
the  atmosphere  in  motion  and  prevent  dead  air  saturated  with  fumes,  failure 
to  provide  gloves  where  needed,  escape  of  fumes  to  neighboring  departments 
or  processes,  and  the  practically  universal  use  of  'benzine  and  benzine  cements 
in  open  cups  placed  before  the  workers  were  the  chief  features.  A  feasible 
closed  container  for  benzine  has  been  mentioned  under  "Tire  Building."  After 
benzine,  the  next  chief  hazard  was  soapstone  dust.  While  much  of  this  in 
the  air  was  due  to  carelessness  on  the  "part  of  the  employes,  the  processes  are 
bound  to  produce  it.  Much  of  it  can  be  curtailed  by  local  exhausts,  slatted 
table  tops  and  floors,  wet  methods,  improved  methods,  substitutes,  and  the 
wearing  of  light  respirators.  Particularly,  should  workers  in  the  dusty  proc- 
esses be  limited   to   those   who   give   no   personal   or   family   history   of   tuber- 


222 

culosis.  While  the  dust  itself  is  non-poisonous  and  free  from  harshness,  it 
excites  coughing,  which  is  all  that  is.  required  to  awaken  tuberculosis  in  many 
persons  with  whom  it  would  otherwise  remain  latent. 

RUBBER. COLD  VULCANIZING. 

This  process  is  also  called  "cold  cure"  and  "acid  cure."  It  consists  in 
dippinj  the  articles  to  be  vulcanized  into  various  solutions  carrying  sulphur, 
or  of  applying  the  solutions  to  the  rubber  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  Usually 
only  a  high  grade  of  thin  rubber  articles  unmixed  with  fabric  are  vulcanized 
in  this  way,  such  as  gloves,  cots,  bags,  etc.,  which  are  dipped  into  the  solu- 
tions.    We    have    also    inclucjed    here    "splicing"    of    inner    tubes    for    tires,    in 


Fig.  58.    Rubber  "Cold  Cure"  Process. 

This  room  has  slatted  floor  with  exhaust  beneath  to  draw  off  heavy  poisonous 

fumes    (carbon  bisulphide,   sulphur  chloride,  etc.) 


which  the  solution  is  applied  with  a  brush  in  the  presence  of  a  brief  air  suction 
blast,  the  worker  standing  before  a  small  stand. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  15  establishments,  engaging  200  males 
and  3  females  at  this  work.  A  welfare  attitude  seemed  to  prevail  between 
employer  and  employe  in  9  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  other  6.  The  workers 
were  of  an  intelligent  type  in  10  places,  and  a  fair  type  of  foreigners  in  the 
remaining  5  (usually  the  larger  places).  It  appeared  difficult  to  retain  workers 
at  the  process,  especially  in  5  places  and  fairly  so  in  9  others.  Health  ap- 
pliances, consisting  of  exhaust  systems  locally  applied,  of  confinement  of  the 
process  within  cupboards  and  good  room  ventilation  were  adequate  in  but  1 
place,  altho  in  14  of  the  15  places  some  attempts  were  made  to   control  the 


223 

escape  or  concentration  of  the  vapors.  In  all  places  workers  were  given  gloves 
to  protect  their  hands.  Instruction  concerning  the  poisonous  solutions  was 
good  in  3  places  only.  The  work  day  was  between  9  and  10  hours  in  all  places, 
with  a  noon  recess  of  1  hour  in  3  places,  ^  hour  in  1  place,  and  ^  hour  in 
9  others.  In  5  places  some  overtime  was  the  rule.  The  work  required  very 
little  skill.  There  was  a  tendency  to  employ  youthful  persons.  It  was  found 
to  be  a  type  of  process  in  which  persons  were  first  introduced  to  the  rubber 
business.  Only  2  persons  were  seen  over  40  years  of  age.  Construction  of  the 
work  quarters  was  hygienic  in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  4  others  and  bad  in  the 
remaining  3.  In  8  places  the  work-room  was  only  partially  partitioned  off 
from  other  processes,  so  that  vapors  and  odors  were  interchangeable. 


Fig.  5!l).  Rubber  Works. 
A  carbon  bisulphide  dipping  cupboard  to  the  right,  showing  mechanical 
means  of  operating  and  dipping  (carried  on-  within  cupboard)  and  the  door 
to  cupboard.  Also  slatted  drying  bench  in  center  of  room.  Both  this  and  the 
dipping  cupboard  are  connected  with  a  powerful  exhaust  system  beneath  the 
floor. 


In  10  places  soapstone  and  sulphur  dusts  were  a  fair  hazard,  due  both  to 
carelessness  in  their  use  and  the  absence  of  a  removal  system.  In  the  remain- 
ing 5,  dust  was  negligible.  Quarters  were  clean  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  7 
others  and  not  so  in  1.  Dampness  was  no  factor.  Light  was  good  in  12  places 
and  fair  in  3.  The  room  air  was  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  8  and  bad  in  6,  due 
to  the  escape  of  fumes  and  the  absence  of  means  for  promoting  ventilation. 
Heat  was  no  factor,  but  cold,  due  to  ineflficient  heating  and  to  the  wide- 
opening  of  windows  in  order  to  dilute  the  vapors  and  fumes  was  a  bad  factor 
in  several  places.  Fatigue  was  a  fair  factor,  due  to  the  hurry  of  piecework, 
constant  standing,  faulty  postures,  and  the  youthfulness  of  many  of  the  workers. 


224 

The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  Avas  a  bad  risk  in  3  places,  fairly 
so  in  10  more  and  negligible  in  the  remaining  2.  The  hazards  were  common 
drinking  cups,  improper  wash-places  and  closets,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence 
of  cuspidors,  and  lack  of  medical  supervision.  Poisons  are  the  chief  hazards 
in  this  industry.  They  vary  in  tj^pe  and  number,  but  include  benzine,  benzol, 
wood  alcohol,  carbon  tetrachloride,  sulphur  chloride,  and  carbon  bisulphide. 
The  risk  of  poisoning  was  bad  in  8  places,  fair  in  6,  whale  in  but  1  were  we 
satisfied  the  workers  were  amply  protected.  In  some  places  the  work  was 
done  on  table  tops  with  brushes,  the  solutions  being  kept  in  open-top  jars.  In 
many  places  the  drippings  accumulated  on  the  w^ork  stand  and  floors  whence 
evaporation  took  place.  Eating  in  the  same  quarters  was  the  rule.  A  very 
few  workers  had  been  at  the  process  more  tJhan  a  few  weeks  or  months.  In- 
dustrial alcoholism  was  favored  in  3  places,  partly  so  in  9  others,  and  was 
negligible  in  the  remaining  3,  the  factors  being  inadequate  drinking  facilities, 
and  the  depressing  influences'  of  poisons  inhaled,  ingested  and  skin-absorbed. 
In  all  places  some  workers  were  observed  who  were  unhealthy  looking, 
while  in  o.  decidedly  pale  and  anemic  persons  were  seen.  The  chief  complaints 
of  the  workers  were  the  breathing  of  the  fumes  and  vapors  and  dust.  In  9 
plants  the  following  cases  of  occupational  poisoning  were  diagnosed :  carbon 
bisulphide  poisoning,  4  positive,  2  tentative  and  a  number  of  suspicious  ones; 
sulphur,  chloride  and  tetrachloride  poisoning,  4  positive;  benzol,  1  positive.  In 
addition  dermatitis,  dyspepsia,  and  neurasthenia  were  frequent  observations. 
Comments.  —  Out  side  of  the  use  of  mechanisms  to  confine  fumes  and  to  re- 
move them,  the  workers  should  be  examined  weekly  and  rapidly  promoted  or 
rotated  to  other  work.  Females  and  youths  under  21  should  not  be  so  employed. 
The  liability  among  workers  in  carbon  bisulphide  to  great  physical  and  mental 
deterioration,  including  paralysis  and  insanity,  the  latter  of  both  suicidal  and 
homicidal  characteristics,  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

RUBBER. VAPOR   CURE. 

«>  This  process  consists  in  exposing  rubber  articles,  such  as  gloves,  finger 
cots  and  drug  sundries,  to  the  vapors  of  sulphur  chloride  arising  from  a  little 
of  the  substance  placed  upon  a  tin  in  a  warming  cupboard;  also,  largely  used 
in  some  places  in  the  splicing  of  the  ends  of  inner  tubes  for  tires,  in  which 
case  carbon  tetrachloride,  and  perhaps  carbon  bisulphide  were  additional  sub- 
stances used.  (As  this  method- of  splicing  tubes  is  done  at  room  temperature, 
it  has  been  considered  under  "Cold  Vulcanizing.")  The  goods,  except  inner 
tubes,  are  exposed  within  the  cupboards  for  the  proper  length  of  time  and  then 
removed,  usually  by  hand.  In  most  cases  the  workmen  entered  the  cupboards 
for  this  purpose. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  8  establishments  in  which  43  males  were 
found  to  be  so  engaged.  Foreigners  constituted  the  main  type  of  workers 
in  3  plants  (all  large  places),  while  the  balance  were  usually  American-born. 
The  men  appeared  to  stay  at  the  work  well  in  2  places,  but  only  fairly  so  in 
the  remaining  6.  Health  appliances  consisted  in  confining  the  fumes  within 
warming  cupboards,  having  a  hood  and  exhaust-pipe  placed  over  the  entrance 
thereto.  In  addition,  the  cupboards  were,  in  some  places,  located  within  sepa- 
rate rooms,  and  had  local  exhaust  systems  provided  to  draw  off  vapors  when 
the  process  was  finished.  The  work  day  was  10  hours  in  all  places,  with  J^ 
hour  for  noon  recess  in  6  places,  and  1  hour  in  the  2  remaining.     The  workers 


225 

were  only  engaged  at  intervals  in  the  process.  The  work  required  no  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  employes.  All  workers  were  between  20  and  40^  years  of 
age.  Rooms  containing  cupboards  were  hygienically  constructed  in  7  of  the 
8  places.  In  5  places  the  roorhs  were  not  well  partitioned  off,  or  were  in  the 
same  quarters  with  other  processes,  such  as  dipping,  specialty  making  and 
finishing. 

Dust  in  the  shape  of  soapstone  and  sulphur  was  a  considerable  hazard 
in  2  places,  and  fairly  so  in  3  more,  the  remaining  3  being  satisfactory.  Cleanli- 
ness of  quar'ters  was  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  5  and  poor  in  2.  Light  was  not 
good  in  2,  places.  The  process  required  some  heat,  but  in  only  3  places  could 
this  be  considered  in  a  fair  way  detrimental.  Fatigue  was  no  factor.  The 
contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad  risk  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in 
2  others,  and  negligible  in  the  remaining  2.  The  hazards  were  the  use  of 
common  towels  and  cups,  inadequate  wash-places  and  closets,  promiscuous 
spitting  on  the  dusty  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors  and  lack  of  medical  super- 
vision. The  poisons  used  by  these  workers  were  benzine,  benzol,  sulphur 
chloride,  and  carbon  bisulphide.  Sulphur  chloride,  however,  was  the  only  one 
usually  concerned.  Sulphur  chloride  itself  is  practically  non-poisonous  as  used, 
since  moisture  is  usually  kept  away  from  it.  Otherwise  the  effects  of  chlorine 
and  sulphur  dioxide  fumes  would  be  noticeable.  Industrial  alcoholism  was 
favored  in  2  places,  due,  principally,  to  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities. 

In  3  places  no  unhealthy  appearing  workers  were  seen,  while  in  the  re- 
maining 5,  1  or  more  were  so.  In  1  place  workers  complained  of  the  effects 
of  the  fumes  which  caused  coughing,  sore  throats  and  red  eyes.  Comments. — 
Arrangements  should  be  made  to  withdraw  the  fumes  before  opening  the  cup- 
boards and  entering  them ;  or,  to  counteract  their  effects,  ammonia  gas  has  been 
recommended. 

RUBBER. PRESS-ROOMS. 

In  these  rooms,  steam  vulcanizing  is  done  by  means  of  steel  presses, 
having  hollow  chambers  through  which  the  steam  passes.  The  molds  con- 
taining the  rubber  objects  to  be  vulcanized  (as  water  bags  and  drug  sundries), 
are  placed  within  the  vulcanizers  for  the  proper  length  of  time.  Such  a 
vulcanizer  occupies  about  4  to  8  square  feet  of  floor  space,  and  stands  about 
as  high  as  the  head.     They  are  usually  arranged  in  rows. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  13  establishments,  and  engaged  a  total 
of  468  males  and  64  females.  The  attitude  of  employer  toward  workers 
appeared  excellent  in  8  places,  and  fairly  good  in  the  balance.  The  workers 
were  intelligent  persons  in  7  plants  and  a  fair  type  of  foreigners  in  the  balance. 
In  spite  of  endeavors  on  the  part  of  the  employers,  retention  of  the  workers 
at  the  process  was  only  fair  in  9  of  the  13  places.  Health  appliances,  con- 
sisting of  asbestos  coverings  to  limit  "the  heat  given  off  by  the  presses,  cool 
air  blasts  and  ventilating  schemes  were  good  in  3  places,  fair  in  3  others,  and 
absent  or  inadequate  in  the  balance.  The  work  day  varied  from  9  to  10  hours 
in  all  places,  with  a  noon  recess  of  1  hour  in  4  places  and  ^  hour  in  8.  Over- 
time was  sometimes  resorted  to  in  4  places.  The  work  requires  compara- 
tively little  skill,  except  that  practice  engenders  speed.  The  workers  were  pre- 
eminently between  20  and  40  years  of  age,  with  some  under  20.  The  general 
construction  of  the  workrooms  was  hygienic  in  6,  fairly  so  in  2,  and  bad  in  the 
remaining'  5  places.  Other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  in  5 
places,  and  consisted  of  specialty  work,  trimming,  cement  mixing,  packing,  etc. 

15     O.   D. 


226 

Soapstone  dust,  while  present  in  all  places,  was  a  bad  hazard  in  no  more 
than  2.  Much  of  this  was  due  to  the  personal  carelessness  of  the  workers. 
Waste  accumulations  were  bad  in  2  places,  and  fairly  so  in  5,  with  the  remain- 
ing, good.  Dampness  and  humidity,  due  to  escaping  steam  and  water,  was  bad 
in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  6  more,  but  was  well  controlled  in  the  remaining  6. 
Light  was  good  in  9  places,  fair  in  2,  and  bad  in  2.  The  ventilation  of  the 
rooms  was  good  in  3  places,  only  fair  in  8  others,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  2. 
Heat  was  a  bad  factor  in  5  places,  and  more  or  less  so  in  the  remaining  8. 
Cold  drafts  from  open  windows,  sendentary  work,  and  heat  or  cold  alternation 
was  another  common  hazard.  Fatigue  was  a  fair  hazard  as  the  work  was  con- 
ducted in  9  places,  due  to  piece-work,  monotony,  hurr}',  and  the  frequent  lifting 
of  heavy  steel  molds.  The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad 
risk  in  3  places,  a  fair  risk  in  8  others,  and  well  controlled  in  the  remaining  2. 
The  risks  were  the  use  of  common  cups,  improper  wash-places  and  closets,, 
promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  lack  of  first  aid  provisions  and 
medical  supervision.  Poisoning  may  be  due  in  this  process  to  benzine,  benzol 
and,  occasionally,  antimony  fumes  from  the  rubber.  In  9' places  it  was  minimal, 
in  1  a  fair  risk,  and  in  3  a  very  bad  risk.  Open  cups  of  benzine  and  of  benzine 
and  benzol  cement  were  chief  factors.  Industrial  alcoholism  and  coffeeism 
were  decidedly  favored  in  5  places,  and  fairly  so  in  6  others,  due  to  inadequate 
drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  depression  due  to  humidity,  heat,  fatigue  and 
the  fumes  mentioned. 

In  but  2  places  were  all  workers  healthy  appearing.  In  the  remaining  11, 
one  or  more  fpersons  were  at  least  in  need  of  a  physical  examination  to  establish 
their  health  status.  Pallor,  anemia  and  exhaustion  were  the  physical  signs. 
The  workers  complained,  principally,  of  the  excessive  heat  in  5  places,  which 
was  increased  in  warm  weather.  Also  the  smell  of  burnt  rubber  and  the 
benzine  fumes.  In  1  room  the  temperature  was  120°.  Comments.  —  The 
generous  use  of  asbestos  coverings  to  presses  seems  to  be  very  efficient  in  pre- 
venting heat  loss  in  the  process  as  well  as  promoting  a  healthier  atmosphere. 
Room  ventilation  schemes,  local  air  blasts  and  aid-agitators  are  necessary  ap- 
pliances in  most  of  the  places.  While  some  places  were  kept  comparatively  dry, 
and  escaping  steam  was  limited,  others  were  at  the  opposite  extreme.  Plenty  of 
room  space  should  also  be  given. 

RUBBER. CEMENT    MANUFACTURING. 

This  process,  called  "cement  mixing",  consists  in  the  admixture  of  pow- 
dered rubber  with  benzine,  benzol  and  canbon  bisulphide.  Sometimes  one  and 
sometimes  all  constitute  the  solvent  for  the  rubber,  with  some  other  ingredients. 
The  process,  because  of  the  risk  of  fire  and  explosions,  is  usually  conducted  at 
a  distance  from  the  other  buildings  in  a  small  brick  and  stone  outbuilding. 
In  some  places,  however,  no  such  precautions  were  observed.  The  mixing  may 
be  done  by  hand  in  open  containers,  using  a  wooden  paddle,  or  by  machinery. 
After  the  mixing,  the  cement  is  drawn  off  and  usually  filled  by  hand  into  com- 
pressible tubes  and  cans  to  be  sold,  except  that  to  be  used  at  the  plant  itself, 
which  is  placed  in  five-gallon  open  or  closed  cans,  and  distributed  to  the  various 
departments. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  9  places,  where  it  engaged  50  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  Mechanical  methods  of  good  protective  character  were 
present  in  5  places,  while,  in  the  other  4,  antiquated  methods  were  in  vogue. 


227 

The  attitude  of  employers  toward  workers  seemed  good  in  all  places.  The 
workers  were  very  largely  foreigners  and  appeared  to  remain  but  a  short  time 
in  most  of  the  places.  Health  appliances,  consisting  o'f  mixing  machines, 
which  confined  the  fumes  -by  local  down  draft  exhaust  systems  at  the  places 
of  drawing  ofif  the  cement,  and  of  room  exhaust  fans,  were  adequate  in  2 
places,  fairly  so  in  4  others,  and  absent  in  the  balance.  The  foreman  seemed 
well  informed  on  the  danger  of  poisoning  in  only  3  of  the  9  places.  Usually 
the  danger  was  considered  as  a  matter  of  course.  The  work  day  consisted  of 
9  to  10  hours  in  all  places,  with  1  hour  for  noon  recess  in  1  place,  and  ^  hour 
in  the  other  8  places.  No  particular  skill  was  required  in  the  process.  But  2 
workers   were   observed    over   40   years    of    age.      On    the    other    hand,    a    con- 


FiG.  60.     Mixing  Rubber  Cement. 

Poisonous  solutions  and  fumes  are  confined  within  rotary  mixers.  The 
room,  has  exhaust  floor  vents  along  the  edges,  and  fresh  air  is  forced  in  con- 
tinually from  pipe  openings  along  walls  overhead. 


siderable  number  of  boys  were  employed,  this  being  their  first  introduction  to 
the  rubber  business  in  some  places.  The  construction  of  the  workplace  was 
hygienic  in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  1,  and  bad  in  the  remaining.  The  process  was 
carried  on  in  an  open,  hand  method  in  the  same  room  with  other  processes  in 
2  places. 

Dust  was  hardly  a  factor  in  the  process.  Quarters  were  dean  in  all  but 
1  place.  Dampness  was  no  factor  except  that  in  outdoor  buildings  adequate 
heating  was  absent.  In  only  2  places  was  the  air  safely  freed  of  the  fumes 
and  vapors.  The  balance  were  badly  in  need  of  local  exhaust  ventilation 
schemes,  particularly  in  the  filling  of  tubes  and  cans,  which  was  usually  dniu- 
by  boys,   working  around   a   table.     Cold,   from   the   outdoor  character   of    the 


228 

work,  was  a  bad  feature  in  1  place.  .Fatigue  was  no  factor.  The  liability  to 
contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  factor  in  most  places,  due  to  the 
use  of  common  drinking  cups,  improper  wash-places  and  closets,  promiscuous 
spitting  and  absence  of  cuspidors.  The  risk  of  poisoning,  depending  some- 
what upon  the  carelessness  of  the  operator  himself,  was  present  in  all  places. 
In  4,  however,  protection  was  by  no  means  adequate.  The  chief  poisons  were 
benzine  or  naphtha,  benzol  and  carbon  bisulphide.  Industrial  alcoholism  was 
well  controlled  in  3  places  by  providing  adequate  drinking  facilities,  and  taking 
care  of  the  fumes  as  v^^ell  as  giving  personal  instructions. 

No  sick  workers  were  observed  in  3  places ;  in  another,  all  were  new 
employes,  while  in  the  remaining  5,  several  persons,  as  a  rule,  were  in  need  of 
a  medical  examination.  The  complaints  of  the  workers  were  dizziness,  nervous- 
ness, loss  of  appetite,  easy  fatigue,  coughs,  sore  eyes  and  other  symptoms  of 
the  fumes  named.  Many  workers  refused  to  remain  more  than  a  day  or  2. 
Some  were  seen  who  had  been  so  employed  for_a  number  of  years,  but,  of 
these,  few  were  healthy  appearing.  Comments.  —  Every  mechanical  effort 
should  be  made  to  confine  and  remove  fumes.  In  addition,  workers  should 
have  a  frequent  medical  examination,  and  they  should  be  rapidly  promoted,  or 
frequently  rotated  to  other  positions.  The  liability  to  paralysis  and  insanity 
among  workers  exposed  to  carbon  bisulphide  has  been  mentioned  under  "Cold 
Vulcanizing." 

RUBBER. RECLAIMING. 

By  various  chemical  and  mechanical  processes  old  rubber  is  reclaimed 
from  waste  products  about  the  rubber  works  and  from  vast  quantities  of  old 
rubber  goods  which  are  shipped  in.  It  is.  a  special  industry  by  itself.  The 
process  consists  in  grinding,  milling,  chemical  treatments  and  drying.  The 
finished   product    is    called    "shoddy". 

The  process  was  investigated  in  6  plants  employing  a  total  of  582  wage- 
earners,  all  males.  The  plants  varied  from  18  to  350  wage-earners.  A  vast 
majority  of  the  workers  were  foreign-laborers  who  had  a  tendency  to  come 
and  go.  Adequate  health  appliances  were  found  in  3  places,  fairly  so  in  1 
more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  The  work  day  varied  from  10  to  12 
hours ;  the  noon  recess  was  i  hour  in  all  places.  Most  of  the  workers  were 
pretty  steadily  engaged  at  their  various  applications.  Very  few  workers  were 
under  20  or  over  40  years  of  age.  The  plants  were  hygienically  constructed  in 
2  places  and  not  so  in  3.  A  general  jumbling  of  processes,  usually  to  the 
detriment  of  health,  was  observed  in  8  places. 

Dust,  consisting  of  lint,  shoddy  and  rubber,  was  a  bad  factor  in  1  place, 
fairly  so  in  2  others  and  no  hazard  in  the  remaining  3.  Cleanliness  was  good 
in  3  places,  fair  in  1  and  bad  in  2.  Protection  from  water,  steam  and  humidity. 
which  are  essential  features  of  the  process,  was  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  3 
others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  2.  Half  of  the  places  were  poorly  lighted.— 
large  numbers  of  men  worked  in  basement-like  rooms  barely  lit  with  flaming 
gas  jets.  In  2  plants,  how^ever,  light  was  excellent  throughout.  The  general 
aerial  condition  of  the  work  rooms  was  good  in  3  plants,  fair  in  another  and 
poor  in  the  remaining  2,  due  to  the  lack  of  control  of  vapors  and  fumes  and 
the  absence  of  ventilating  arrangements.  Heat  was  no  particular  factor  in  3 
places,  but  was  bad  in  2.  Exposure  to  cold  and  drafts  were  frequently  bad 
for  men  who  went  in  and  out  of  hot  quarters.  Fatigue  was  not  much  of  a 
factor .  since    the   workers    were    usually   well    selected    to    laborious    processes. 


229 

The  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad  risk  in  1  place,  fairly  so 
in  2  others  and  neghgible  in  the  remaining  3,  due  to  inadequate  washing  places 
and  closets,  common  drinking  cups,  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors 
and  lack  of  medical  supervision.  The  poisonous  substances  used,  mineral  acids 
and  alkalis,  were  well  enough  confined  in  3  plants  to  constitute  no  hazard  and 
fairly  so  in  the  remaining  3.  Industrial  alcoholism  was  rather  favored  in  all 
plants,  and  especially  in  2,  through  the  lack  of  adequate  drinking  water 
facilities. 

The  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  3  plants,  while  in  the  re- 
maining 3  some  workers  were  seen  who  were  not  healthy  appearing.  No  health 
complaints  were  obtained  from  any  of  the  employes,  altho  the  inability  of 
large  numbers  to  spea.k  English  considerably  hindered  such  inquiries.  Com- 
ments.—The  grinding  up  of  old  rubber  should  be  hooded  and  exhausted  to 
limit  the  dust,  which,  it  must  be  remembered,  is  oftentimes  rich  in  lead.  Also 
more  attention  should  be  given  to  providing  the  workers  with  rubber  boots  and 
aprons  who  are  employed  at  the  watery  and  steamy  processes.  Those  in  hot, 
damp  work  should  be  given  the  privileges  of  shower  baths,  with  change  rooms 
and  lockers  in  which  to  dry  work  clothes  and  keep  their  street  clothes  separate. 

POTTERY. SLIP   MAKING. 

Processes  in  the  so-called  slip  houses  are,  in  general,  as  follows  :  remov- 
ing the  clays  in  the  form  of  dust  and  lumps  from  the  stock  bins,  grinding, 
water-washing  and  sifting  processes,  the  preparation  of  the  "slip"  (as  the 
liquid  form  of  the  clay  is  known),  in  blunging  mills,  pug  mills,  agitators,  com- 
pressing machines  and  drying  kilns.  In  the  larger  and  better  arranged  plants, 
several  of  these  sub-processes  were  in  rooms  or  quarters  by  themselves,  or  ar- 
ranged on  different  floors,  but  in  the  majority  of  instances  all  were  carried  on 
usually  in  a  basement  or  first  floor  room. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  38  plants  (24  Whiteware,  7  Stoneware, 
4  Artware,  and  3  Tile  plants)  employing  a  total  of  214  wage-earners,  all  males. 
Even  in  large  plants  but  a  comparatively  few  persons  are  employed  in  this 
part  of  the  industry.  Modern  methods  appeared  to  exist  in  16  places,  fairly 
so  in  20  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  Twenty-three  were  union 
plants  and  15  non-union.  Evident  interest  in  workmen's  welfare  was  excellent 
in  10  places,  fair  to  good  in  24  more  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  4.  The  type 
of  workers  was  good  in  30  places  and  fair  in  the  remaining  8.  The  work  was 
unskilled,  or,  at  the  most,  semi-skilled  labor.  The  majority  of  the  workers 
appeared  to  be  fairly  steady  employes  in  20  places,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining 
18.  Special  health  appliances  were  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  2  others,  and 
practically  absent  in  the  remaining  35.  Placards  and  organized  instructions 
along  health  lines  were  absent  in  all  places,  as  were  also  sick  benefit,  death  and 
pension  features,  except  such  as  were  maintained  by  the  unions.  Work 
quarters  were  hygienically  constructed  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  5  others,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  29.  In  7  plants  other  processes,  such  as  clay  molding, 
finishing  and  glaze-mixing  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  with  slip 
making.  Of  the  total  number  of  workers,  20  were  over  40  years  of  age  and 
the  balance  between  20  and  40. 

The  work  was  so  conducted  that  in  9  places  dust,  composed  of  a  small 
percentage  of  flint  and  the  various  clay  earths  used  (and  non-poisonous),  was 
no  hazard;  in  6  others  it  constituted  a  fair  hazard,  and  in  the  remaining  23  it 


230 

was  bad.  The  chief  causes  for  dust  in  the  atmosphere  were  the  more  or  less 
constant  shoveling  of  the  clays  in  a  dry  form,  its  escape  from  grinding 
machines,  and  from  "kicking  up"  from  the  floors.  In  3  places  quarters  were 
maintained  excellently  clean  and  orderly,  especially  for  a  class  of  work  such 
as  this ;  in  9  other  places  general  cleanliness  was  from  fair  to  good ;  in  the 
remaining  26  the  word  "cleanliness"  could  hardly  be  said  to  apply,  inasmuch  as 
many  of  them  were  located  in  basement  and  cellar  quarters,  with  clays  in  both 
wet  and  dry  form  covering  the  floors.  In  many  places  it  seemed  difficult  even 
to  move  about  because  of  the  uneveness  of  floors  and  platforms,  the  piles  of 
clay,  the  crowding  of  machinery,  vats,  partitions,  posts,  low  ceilings  and  the 
like.  Water  and  dampness  were  well  enough  controlled  to  constitute  no  hazard 
to  health  in  8  places,  and  fairly  so  in  10  more,  but  not  so  in  the  remaiing  20. 
This  seemed  to  be  due  to   faulty  floor  drainage,   leaky  vats   and  slip-containing 


?»s'"""^'^gS%-f^ 


Fig.  61.     The  Slip  House. 
Showing  presses  where  water  is  squeezed  out  of  the  "slip". 


machines,  and  the  presence  of  the  wet  clays  under  foot,  as  well  as  quarters 
which  it  would  be  hard  to  keep  from  dampness  under  any  circumstances. 
Light  was  good  in  14  places,  fair  in  3  more  and  bad  in  the  remaining  21,  due, 
chiefly,  to  the  confined  location  within  basement  or  ground  floor  rooms,  many 
times  practically  shut  off  from  daylight.  In  such  quarters  flaring  gas  flames 
burning  at  the  end  of  a  pipe  and  without  vents  to  remove  fumes  were  fre- 
quently the  main  source  of  light.  General  room  ventilation,  was  excellent  in  2 
places,  fair  in  17  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  19,  due,  chiefly,  to  inside, 
basement,  or  cellar  locations,  the  presence  of  dry  kilns,  of  heating  and  lighting 
processes  without  adequate  vents  for  gases  and  fumes,  and  to  the  absence  of 
ventilating  machinery  or  appliances  in  places  where  doors  and  windows  could 
not  be  counted  upon  for  proper  ventilation.  Hot,  still,  humid  air  was  a  com- 
mon observance  in  many  places,  and  cold,  still  moist  air  in  others.  Workers 
often  passed  from  the  one  to  the  other.     Heat  was  a  negligible  hazard  in  21 


231 

places,  fairly  so  in  10  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  7.  The  chief  causes 
of  heat  were  hot  processes,  particularly  the  exposed  location  of  drying  kilns. 
While  cold  is  not  a  feature  of  the  process,  the  work  quarters,  although  in- 
spected in  the  summer  time,  were  hazardous  in  this  respect  in  5  places  and 
fairly  so  in  3  others.  The  proportion  would  unquestionably  be  higher  in  the 
winter  season.  In  the  majority  of  places,  however,  heating  arrangements  were 
extended  to  the  slip  houses,  or  the  processes  themselves  insured  the  same.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  work  is  of  a  heavy,  arduous  character,  and  for  this 
reason  the  more  powerfully  built  types  of  laborers  were  usually  found  present. 
However,  fatigue,  to  the  extent  of  exhaustion,  was  a  hazard  in  27  places,  the  I 
chief  factors  being  the  continual  lifting  of  heavy  clays'and  "slips",  piece-work 
in  some  places  and  constant  straining  postures.  The  workday  v^^as  8  hours  in 
3  places,  from  8^-  to  9  hours  in  4  places,  and  from  9  to  10  hours  in  the  re- 
maining 31.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  6  places,  h  hour  in  17  others,  and 
less  than  a  half  hour  in  the  remaining  1-5.  Sometimes  the  men  apparently 
worked  without  observing  any  particular  noon  recess.  Overtime  was  an 
infrequent  occurrence.  A  morning  lunch  recess  at  9  o'clock  was  a  common 
observance.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad 
hazard  in  29  places  and  fairly  so  in  8  more,  due,  chiefly,  to  promiscuous  spit- 
ting, absence  of  cuspidors,  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  inadequate  washing 
facilities,  poor  closets,  lack  of  lockers  and  of  medical  supervision.  In  many 
places  first-aid  provisions  were  inadequate  or  lacking.  Poisons  were  no  feature 
of  the  process,  but  in  many  places  these  workers  w^ere  more  or  less  exposed  to 
the  dusts  from  the  glaze-mixing  machines  in  the  vicinity  where  lead  com- 
pounds were  being  group  up  and  mixed.  The  inducement  to  alcoholism  was 
considerable  in  26  places  and  fair  in  at  least  6  more,  due  to  inadequate  drinking 
water  facilities  and  the  depressing  influences  of  dampness,  laborious  work, 
disorderly  surroundings,  devitalized  air  and  the  like. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  8  places  ,while  it  was 
generally  no  more  than  fair  in  the  remaining  30.  Many  prematurely  aged,  pale 
and  under-w^eight  men  were  seen  among  those  longest  employed.  The  chief 
complaints  of  the  workers  were  the  breathing  of  dust,  damp  quarters,  heat, 
fatigue,  poor  washing  facilities  and  general  insanitary  quarters.  Comments.  — • 
Except  the  breathing  of  dust,  there  is  nothing  about  this  process  which  is 
inherently  hazardous  to  health.  All  features  dangerous  to  health  come  under 
the  head  of  general  sanitation,  ventilation,  light,  heat,  water  and  dampness 
control.  The  various  figures  above  given  show  the  proportion  in  which  these 
features  were  not  up  to  a  standard  sufficient  to  conserve  the  health  of  the 
workers. 

FLINT  DUST  MAKING  is  the  most  hazardous  dust  process  in  the  pottery 
industry.  Only  a  few  large  firms  did  this  for  themselves,  but  our  attention  was 
called  to  two  firms  employing  foreign  laborers  who  were  engaged  in  making 
this  product.  Crushing,  grinding,  conveying,  and  packing  all  created  an  unusual 
amount  of  fine,  hard  flint  dust  which  pervaded  the  air  of  the  "houses"  and  even 
coated  the  openings  of  windows,  doors,  and  roof  vents  with  a  white  flour-like 
powder.  Comments.  —  Dust-confining  machinery,  short  hours,  and  respirators 
are  needed  in  all  such  places, 


232 


POTTERY.— SAGGER  MAKING. 

This  process  consists  in  the  making,  shaping,  baking,  finishing  and  repair- 
ing of  the  clay  containers  in  which  the  pottery  ware  itself  is  later  baked.  It 
was  investigated  in  10  plants  where  1  or  more  men  were  practically  steadily  so 
employed,  the  total  number  of  wage-earners  heing  106.  From  this  it, will  be 
seen  that  a  comparatively  few  potters  are  engaged  in  sagger  making.  The 
plants  investigated  were  white-ware,  tile  and  art  potteries.  Fifteen  were  union 
plants  and  4  non-union.  The  type  of  workers  was  generally  good,  the  work 
requiring  some  skill.  Retention  at  the  trade  appeared  good  in  13  places  and 
fair  in  at  least  5  more.  Health  appliances  and  instructions  along  health  lines 
were  given  some  consideration  in  1  place.  The  construction  of  the  work  place 
was  good  in  4  places,  fair  in  2  others,  and  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  13. 
The  process  was  usually  carried  on  in  close  proximity  to  the  slip  making 
quarters.  There  were  8  workers  over  40  years  of  age,  the  balance  being 
between  20  and  40. 


Fig.  62.     Saggei^-Making  Room. 
Saggers  hold  the  ware  while  being  fired  in  the  kilns. 


The  work  was  done  so  as  to  keep  dust  at  a  neglibible  minimum  in  4 
places,  fairly  so  in  5  more  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  10.  The  chief  cause  of 
dust  was  the  careless  handhng  and  dumping  of  clays  and  the  "kicking  up"  of 
it  from  the  floors  and  benches.  Quarters  were  in  clean  condition  in  2  places, 
fairly  so  in  6  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  11.  Dampness  was  negligible 
in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  3  more,  but  constituted  a  hazard  to  health  in  the  re- 
maining 8,  due  to  water,  steam,  humidity,  and  in  some  places,  basement  or  cellar 
locations.  Others  hazards  of  light,  ventilation,  heat,  fatigue,  and  the  liability 
to  communicable  diseases,  were  about  the  same  as  those  described  in  "slip" 
making.  One  other  great  hazard  was  noted,  viz.,  "sagger  washing",  which 
consists  in  the  painting  of  the  inside  of  the  saggers  with  a  red  lead  solution. 
Among  the  20  men  found  so  employed  were  3  cases  of  chronic  lead  poisoning 
and  1  other  who  had  had  acute  lead  poisoning. 

The  appearance  of  the  sagger  makers  in  general  was  good  in  5  places, 
while  1  or  more  sickly  appearing  workers  were  seen  in  the  remaining  places. 
General  complaints  were  breathing  of  dust,  dampness,  rheumatism,  and  poor 
Sfinitation.     Comments.  — Tht  lead  poison  hazard  of  sagger  washers  is  largely 


233 

one  of  personal  hygiene,  plus  the  fact  that  in  numbers  of  places  there  were  no 
washing  facilities,  that  workers  did  not  know  that  red  lead  was  poisonous  and 
that  periodic  medical  examination  for  the  slow  onset  of  lead  poisoning  were 
lacking.  The  improvement  of  general  working  conditions  was  needed  in  from 
J  to  I  of  the  places  to  insure  the  health  of  the  workers,  particularly,  along  the 
lines  of  dampness  prevention,  cold  drafts  alternating  with  heat  exposures,  poor 
closets  and  the  like. 

POTTERY.- — MOLD    MAKING. 

The  making  of  plaster-of-Paris  molds  for  forms  for  china  ware,  art  ware, 
etc.,  is  a  feature  employing  1  or  more  men  in  each  pottery.  The  process  was 
investigated  in  16  plants  where  37  men  were  more  or  less  constantly  employed 
at  mold  making.  Health  appliances  to  handle  and  confine  the  dust  mechanically 
were  absent  in  all  places.  The  men  were  old  employes  in  9  places,  and  re- 
mained fairly  steadily  at  the  work  in  the  remaining  7.  The  work  place  was 
hygienically  good  in  2  plants,  fairly  so  in  6  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining 
8.  The  work  was  usually  carried  on  in  quarters  by  itself.  There  were  9  of  the 
37  workmen   who  were  over  40  vears  of  age. 


FiG:  Go.     Mold  Making.i 
A  process  resembling  sculpturing. 


The  dusts  were  so  handled  in  6  places  as  to  constitute  a  fairly  negligible 
hazard,  but  in  the  remaining  10  this  was  not  so.  The  chief  factors  were  the 
emptying  of  barrels  of  plaster-of-Paris  and  the  handwork  with  the  same. 
Piece-work  caused  too  much  hurrying  and  too  little  care  in  the  amount  of  dust 
created.  Quarters  were  kept  clean  and  orderly  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  7  more 
and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  Da/mpness,  darkness,  heat,  cold,  and  fatigue 
were  negligible  features  in  all  but  1  or  2  places.  General  room  ventilation  wSs 
good  in  5,  fair  in  8,  and  poor  in  3  places.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of 
communicable  diseases  was  a  considerable  hazard  in  13  places,  due  to  pro- 
miscuous spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  common  drinking  cups,  inadequate 
washing  facilities,  poor  closets,  and  lack  of  medical  supervision.  Poisons  were 
not  used. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  6  places,  while  1  or 
more  in  the  remaining  10  appeared  under  par.  The  complaints  of  the  work- 
ers were  the  breathing  of  dust  and  general  features  of  sanitation.  Comments. — 
It  would  appear  that  mechanical  means  could  be  contrived  to  convey  and  weigh 


234 

the  dusts  used,  particularly,  where  piecework  obtains.  Being  a  dusty  occupa- 
tion and  an  injurious  type  of  dust,  workers  should  be  under  medical  super- 
vision. In  addition,  respirators  should  be  furnished  and  worn  while  perform- 
ing unavoidably  dust}'  operations   in  the  work. 

POTTERY. CLAY    OR    BISQUE    MAKING. 

The  clays  which  are  prepared  in  the  "slip"  houses  are  conveyed  to  the 
clay  or  bisque  making  rooms  where  they  are  shaped  on  plaster-of-Paris  molds 
or  otherwise  by  various  groups,  of  workers  and  with  the  aid  in  some  instances 
of  simple  machinery.  In  tile  and  porcelain  factories  the  work  is  done  by 
machines  in  what  are  known  as  the  pressrooms.  The  workers  include  batters- 
out,  pressers,  jiggermen,  jollymen,  turners,  handlers,  stickers-up,  dish  specialty 
makers,  finishers,  machine  pressers,  mold  boys  (called  also  mold  runners  and 
dog    trotters),    and    helpers.      Of    these    classes    females    were    employed     par- 


FiG.  64.     A  Line  of  Jiggermen  in  the  Clay  House. 
Here  plates  are  formed. 


ticularly  as  finishers  and  in  the  making  and  putting  together  of  small  parts. 
After  the  ware  is  shaped  it  is  placed  on  board  trays  and  carried  into  drying 
ovens  located  usually  a  few  feet  to  the  backs  of  the  workmen.  The  mold  boys 
do  the  carrying  of  the  ware  and  the  filling  and  emptying  of  the  ovens,  which 
they  enter  and  climb  up  to  the  upper  shelves  as  required  to  reach  them. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  53  plants,  including  all  branches  of  the 
pottery  industry.  It  was  skilled  work  in  all  except  machine  processes  (tiles  and 
porcelain  ware).  There  were  employed  a  total  of  3,048  wage-earners,  of  whom 
2,521  were  males  and  527  were  females.  The  majority  of  all  potters  are  en- 
gaged in  the  bisque  making  rooms.  Unions  existed  in  33  of  the  plants  in- 
vestigated and  were  absent  in  the  other  20.  The  general  attitude  towards  em- 
ployes seemed  fair  to  good  in  all  but  4  places-.  The  relations  between  em- 
ployer and  employes  are  peculiar  in  this  process :  while  the  older  and  skilled 
men  work  for  the  company,  a  large  percentage  of  the  total  employes,  com- 
posed principally  of  boys  and  females  and  some  adult  male  helpers,  are  em- 


235 

ployed  by  the  skilled  workers.  The  type  of  workers  was  of  an  intelligent  class 
in  practically  all  places.  Non-English  speaking  persons  were  rarely  en- 
countered. The  question  of  how  well  workers  remained  at  the  various  proc- 
esses is  probably  best  answered  as  in  direct  proportion  to  their  skill.  As  the 
unskilled  outnum'bered  the  skilled  and  as  apprentices  were  selected  from 
among  the  former,  there  was  considerable  rivalry  among  helpers,  —  enough  to 
keep  most  of  them  intensely  busy.  In  but  3  places  were  features  which  could 
be  considered  as  health  appliances  present,  and  these  consisted  in  1  place  of 
air  exhaust  fans  for  the  work  quarters,  of  mechanical  mold  and  "green  ware" 
carriers  in  2  places,  and  in  cuspidors  and  garbage  cans  in  some  places.  Some 
instructions  along  health  lines  were  given  in  3  places.  Outside  of  the  unions 
v.ery  few  of  the  workers  had  sick,  death,  or  pension  benefits.  Work  quarters 
were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  11  others,  and  not 
so  in  the  remaining  38.  The  chief  features  were  due  largely  to  the  old  types 
of  factory  construction,  with  low  ceilings,  inadequate  window  space  (particu- 
larly   for    room    interiors),    rough    floors,    half    floors,    lof/ts,    "chopped-up" 


Fig.  65.     Pressing  Department  in  Clay  House. 

quarters,  poor  heating  facilities,  and  so  on.  In  most  places  the  clay  rooms  were 
on  several  floors,  one  above  another,  or  scattered  about.  The  mass  of  workers 
were  at  benches  before  the  windows  from  which  boys  and  helpers  transported 
the  ware  to  the  baking  ovens  which  occupied  the  centers  of  the  rooms,  and  were 
usually  heated  by  gas  or  steam  and  without  vents  to  remove  the  motionless 
heated  air  from  the  rest  of  the  room.  At  about  ^f  of  the  places  other  processes, 
as  the  making  of  "slip"  or  saggers,  and  dipping,  were  done.  Age-group  estima- 
tions summed  up  as  follows:  32  persons  over  50  years  of  age,  256  between  40 
and  50,  2,482  between  20  and  40,  and  278  under  20,  the  latter,  boys,  as  a  rule. 

In  3  plants  the  work  was  performed  ind  supervised  in  such  a  way  that 
dust  was  a  negligible  hazard  to  workers,  and  in  10  more  such  was  the  case  to  a 
fair  extent.  In  the  remaining  40  places,  workers  were  under  considerable 
hazard  from  the  breathing  of  fine  clay  dust  in  the  air.  Some  machine  press- 
rooms were  free  from  dust ;  others  were  very  dusty,  apparently  because  clays 
were  handled  drier.  In  these,  each  fall  of  the  press  was  accompanied  by  a 
discharge  of  dust.  While  the  clays  are  handled  in  the  wet,  as  the  process 
proceeds  they  become   dry  until  they  are   eventually  baked.     Carelessness   and 


236 

hurrying  work  at  the  benches  creates  some  dust,  but  most  of  it  arises  from 
clap  drippings  which  dry  out  on  the  floors,  from  the  carrying  trays,  from  the 
continual  hurrj'ing  trips  of  the  mold  boys,  and  particularly,  from  the  finishers. 
The  finishers  (largely  females)  who  scrape  rapidly  revolving  articles,  ran  the 
greatest  dust  hazard,  while  the  mold  boys  and  helpers  who  handled  the  dried 
bisques  in  the  ovens  suffered  next  in  hazards.  In  no  places  were  local  ex- 
haust systems  found  for  the  protection  of  finishers.  If  the  dusts  were  not  of 
an  injurious  character  the  risks  to  the  general  mass  of  workers  could  be  over- 
looked. Quarters  were  orderly  and  cleanly  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  others,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  41.  General  construction  was  a  chief  factor  in  such, 
rendering  it  impossible  to  use  a  hose  for  cleaning  floors  and  benches  or  to  use 


Fig.  66.     Pressroom  ix  ax  Art  Tile  "Works. 
The  machines   (on  right)  press  the  moist  clays  into  tiles,  the  workers  select 
and  "sagger"  them.    The  workers  are  not  crowded  as  foreshortening  by  camera 
appears  to  show. 


vacuum  cleaners.  While  the  work  is  necessarily  with  wet  and  moist  clays,  still, 
dampness  was  a  negligible  hazard  in  21  cases,  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but  not  so 
in  the  remaining  25,  in  which  latter  poor  locations  and  insufficient  heating 
provisions  (other  than  the  baking  ovens)  were  the  chief  causes.  Carelessness 
on  the  part  of  the  workers  was  another  factor.  Light  was  good  in  all  places 
for  the  more  skilled  workers,  but  in  i  of  the  places,  a  large  percentage  of  those 
engaged  in  sub-processes  were  in  very  poorly  or  improperly  lighted  quarters. 
General  room  ventilation  was  good  in  11  places,  fair  in  14  more,  and  poor  in 
the  remaining  28,  particularly,  for  the  winter  season  of  the  year.  This  was 
due  to  the  large  number  of  work  people  assembled  together,  the  presence  of 
the  baking  ovens,  and  the  lack  of  air-agitators  and  air-conditioning  systems, 
and  often  to  the  absence  of  ordinary  vents  in  types  of  buildings  which  it  was 


237    . 

impossible  to  ventilate  efficifently  without  mechanical  means.  Heat  constituted 
no  particular  hazard  to  workers  in  24  places,  while  it  was  some  feature  in  6 
places,  and  bad  in  the  23  remaining,  particularly,  in  the  warmer  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  presence  of  the  baking  ovens  accounted  for  this.  While  the  mold 
boys  remained  in  the  ovens  for  only  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  the  investigators 
found  them  to  be  very  hot,  especially  for  youths  who  worked  at  such  a  hurrying 
pace  as  was  commonly  observed.  Cold,  due  to  the  presence  of  the  wet  clays 
and  insufficient  heating  arrangements,  was  a  considerable  complaint  in  26  es- 
tablishments during  the  winter  time.  Many  persons  said  they  worked  with 
hands  and  arms  benumbed  and  the  feet  cold  at  the  benches  during  this  season. 
The  alternations  between  heat  and  cold  for  the  oven  workers  was  another 
frequent  complaint.  Fatigue,  especially  for  youths,  constituted  a  fair  to  con- 
siderable hazard  in  all  handwork  places.  It  was  chiefly  due  to  hurrying  piece- 
work, monotonous  application  under  constant  strain,  constant  standing  (very 
rarely  were  females,  even,  found  to  be  seated),  and  faulty  postures.  Less 
frequent  factors  were  for  some  of  the  classes  employed :  laborious  work,  long 
hours,   and  pressing  various   portions   of  the  body   against  objects   to   facilitate 


Fig.  67.    "Green"  Room. 
Where  the  ware  is  dried  before  firing. 


the  work.  Chairs  with  backs  (for  females)  were  rarely  observed.  Many 
workers  had  formed  the  pernicious  habit  of  leaning  over  their  work  which 
was  oftentimes  of  a  dust-producing  character.  This  was  explained  by  some 
workers  as  due  to  the  lack  of  an  apprenticeship  for  the  first  week  or  10  days 
during  which  workers  could  learn  their  manipulations  in  a  proper  and  safe 
manner.  The  workday  averaged  6  hours  in  4  places,  between  8J  and  9  hours 
in  o  places,  between  9^  and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  44  places.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  11  places,  f  hour  in  1  place,  J  hour  in  19  places,  and  was 
"as  desired"  in  the  remaining  22.  In  the  majority  of  places  a  morning  recess 
of  10  or  15  minutes  was  the  custom.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  com- 
municable diseases  was  present  in  all  places,  but  constituted  no  more  than  a 
fair  hazard  in  10  places.  The  chief  factors  were  the  crowding  together  of 
large  numbers  of  workers  whose  health  status  was  unknown,  and  without 
medical  supervision.  Added  to  these  were  inadequate  washing  facilities,  poor 
closets  (sometimes  at  great  distanc-es  and  perhaps  only  privies  out  in  the 
yards),  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  use  of  common  drink- 
ing   cups,    and    the    constant   presence    of    dust    to    help    in    the    conveying    of 


238 

diseases,  and  in  the  injuring  of  the  respiratory  organs.  Poisons  were  not  a 
feature  of  the  process,  but  there  was  considerable  complaint  from  the  fumes 
and  gases  from  the  ovens  in  many  places.  In  very  few  places  was  the  in- 
dustrial inducement  to  alcoholism  and  various  forms  of  stimulantism  absent, 
because  of  the  depressing  influences  above  stated. 

In  10  places  the  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  and  con- 
tented. In  the  balance  many  fatigued,  underweight,  and  general  under-par 
individuals  were  seen.  The  usual  complaints  of  workers  were  heat,  fatigue, 
dust,  poor  ventilation,  dampness,  and  cold.  This  is  the  chief  process  (because 
it  employs  so  many)  in  the  pottery  industry  from  which  consumptives  come, 
and  many  instances  of  this  disease  were  brought  to  the  attention  of  the  in- 
vestigators by  both  workmen  and  employers,  usually  with  the  information 
that  it  was  unavoidable.  Commtents.  —  Among  the  shortcomings  pointed  out 
in  the  discussion  above  are  to  be  emphasized  hurrying  piece-work  in  a  hot-and- 
cool  atmosphere,  especially  for  youths,  and  the  lack  of  a  physical  examination 
for  all  employes,  in  order,  especially,  to  get  those  who  are  consumptive  out 
of  the  workrooms  and  to  forewarn  persons  so  disposed.  It  must  not  be  for- 
gotten also  that  pneumonia  is  a  frequent  occupational  disease  among  mineral 
and  clay  dust  inhalers.  In  many  places  hoods  and  stacks  or  roof  ventilators 
could  be  placed  over  the  oven  quarters.  Smooth  floors,  frequently  wet- 
cleaned  or  vacuum-cleaned,  are  necessities.  It  would  appear  to  be  much  better 
to  have  the  factory  management  take  care  of  cleaning  up  the  work  quarters 
than  to  leave  it  to  each  worker  to  attend  to  his  own.  —  Those  who  question  the 
presence  of  fine  dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  should  expose  a  shallow  pan 
or  dish,  colored  dark  on  the  inside,  at  the  level  of  the  workers'  heads,  fill  it 
with  water  and  after  an  interval  evaporate  the  water  to  note  the  presence  and 
amount  of  deposit. 

POTTERY. GLAZE    MIXING. 

This  process  consists  in  the  weighing,  mixing  together  and  fritting  of 
materials  for  glazing  the  molded  ware.  While  some  glazes  used  contain  no 
oxides  and  salts  of  lead,  the  vast  majority  of  them  do.  All  the  forms  of  lead 
used  are  harmful.  The  glaze  mixers  handle  the  lead  oxides  and  salts  in  their 
original  form,  and  hence  run  considerable  risk  of  lead  poisoning  because  of  the 
dustiness  and  solubility  of  the  lead  ingredients.  While  fritted  lead  glazes  (the 
lead  added  before  the  fritting  is  done)  greatly  reduce  the  solubility,  this 
feature  concerns  the  glaze-dippers  who  later  use  it,  rather  than  the  glaze 
mixers  who  prepare  it. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  16  plants  where  men  were  more  or  less 
constantly  so  employed,  including  12  whiteware,  3  artware,  and  1  stoneware 
plants.  There  was  a  total  of  24  wage;-ea.rners,  all  males.  From  this  it  will  be 
seen  that  glaze  mixing  even  in  large  establishments  does  not  require  more  than 
1  or  2  workers.  The  general  type  of  workers  was  good  in  13  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  the  remaining  3.  In  10  places  the  workers  had  been  at  the  process 
for  some  time,  while  in  the  remaining  6  they  were  recent  employes.  In  no 
places  were  special  health  appliances  observed,  while  in  but  2  was  any  definite 
instruction  apparently  given  to  the  workers  upon  the  dangers  of  lead  poisoning. 
However,  each  worker  had  some  indefinite  idea,  as  a  rule,  that  the  substances 
he  was  handling  were  poisonous,  but  his  knowledge  on  the  avoidance  of  poison- 
ing was  usually  very  imperfect.     The  work  requires  no  particular  skill.     The 


239 

glaze  mixing  quarters  were  commonly  in  association  with  the  slip  house  or 
sagger  quarters.  But  3  of  the  workers  were  over  40  years  of  age,  while  no 
youths  were  seen. 

In  1  place  dusi  was  well  enough  confined  and  controlled  to  constitute 
practically  no  hazard,  and  in  4  more  places  it  was  but  a  fair  hazard,  while  in 
the  remaining  11  it  was  bad,  considering  its  nature.  The  same  proportions 
obtain  as  to  the  general  cleanliness  of  the  quarters  or  room  in  which  the  work 
was  done. 

The  workers  were  healthy  appearing  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  12  others,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  The  workers'  complaints  were  the  exposure  to 
dust  and  the  general  insanitary  character  of  the  work  quarters  (see  "Slip" 
Making).  Of  the  20  men  seen,  2  were  suffering  from  lead  poisoning  and  3 
others  tentatively  so.  Comments.  —  Where  dusts,  particularly  of  poisonous 
character,  cannot  be  controlled  in  their  handling  and  manipulation  by  confine- 
ment or  by  exhausts  locally  applied,  the  worker  should  wear  a  respirator  while 
so   exposed,  and   cleaning  of  quarters   should  be   done   either   in   the  wet  or  by 


FiG.  68.     Glaze  Mixing. 


vacuum  methods.  However,  general  sanitary  provisions,  instructions  on  the 
preventing  of  lead  poisoning  and  periodic  medical  supervision  are  essential 
for  this  process. 

POTTERY. — GLAZE  DIPPING. 

This  process  consists  in  taking  the  bisque  ware  (occasionally  the  green 
ware)  and  dipping  it  into  a  glaze  solution,  the  chief  component  of  concern 
being  lead  in  some  form.  For  some  artware  and  tiles  subsequent  glazings  are 
done  by  brush  painting,  sponging,  and  mottling.  The  colored  glazes  are  the 
richest  in  lead  compounds.  Some  of  the  glazes  used  contained  no  lead,  es- 
pecially for  certain  special  ware  (porcelain,  stoneware,  and  some  tiles).  The 
vast  majority  of  the  glazes  contained  lead  in  an  unfritted  form  (especially  solu- 
ble in  the  human  gastric  juice  if  swallowed).  Water  constituted  the  solvent  or 
medium  for  the  glaze.  The  dipping  was  done  by  hand  in  all  except  a  few 
processes  in  tile  factories  where  small  and  regular  pieces  were  dipped  by  ma- 
chinery. However,  it  was  said  that  hand  dipping  was  rapidly  disappearing  in 
tile  factories.  After  glazing,  the  ware  is  placed  in  saggers  and  baked  in  the 
glost  kilns. 

The  dipping  process  was  investigated  in  53  plants,  employing  329  males  and 
257  females,  or  a  total  of  586  workers.     In  all  except  a  few  instances  the  dip- 


240 

ping  was  done  by  males,  while  females  acted  as  helpers  in  draining,  wet  finish- 
ing, and  rubbing  of  the  glazed  ware.  In  many  instances  females  or  boys  acted 
as  "gatherers",  and  removed  the  ware  from  the  dipping  quarters.  Tiles  were 
usually  placed  in  the  saggers  while  still  wet  (hence,  not  dusty).  Unions 
existed  in  34  of  the  plants  investigated  and  were  absent  from  the  remaining 
19.  In  some  cases  helpers  belonged  to  the  unions.-  The  helpers  were  usually 
hired  by  the  dippers  and  constituted  a  fair  to  good  type  of  unskilled  help  in 
practically  all  places.  While  the  dippers  themselves  were  long-time  employes, 
as  a  rule,  a  large  percentage  of  helpers  had  worked  less  than  a  year  in  nearly  all 
places.  This  was  mostly  due  to  varying  social  conditions,  and  sometimes  to 
sickness.  They  changed  about  considerably  from  plant  to  plant.  Special  health 
appliances  (outside  of  mechanical  means  for  dipping  in  the  tile  works,  and 
room  exhaust  fans  in  one  place)  were  not  found,  although  cuspidors  and 
special  methods  of  cleansing  the  floors  by  frequent  flushing  into  floor  drains 
were  features  in  a  small  percentage  of  places.     A  very  few  places  provided  lunch 


Fig.  09.    Dipping  Room. 
Here  the  fired  and  finished  bisque  ware  is  dipped  in  the  glaze. 


rooms  and  occasionally  these  were  most  uninviting  and  not  kept  clean,  and 
consequently  were  little  used.  Some  instruction  in  the  prevention  of  lead 
poisoning  was  given  the  workers  in  5  plants.  A  number  of  plants  were  under- 
going remodeling  at  the  time  of  our  investigations.  Except  for  the  benefit 
privileges  kept  up  by  some  of  the  union  locals,  none  of  the  workers  were 
protected  by  organized  sick  insurance.  The  general  construction  of  the  work 
quarters  was  hygienically  very  good  in  7  places,  fair  in  11  more,  and  not  so  in 
the  remaining  35.  Other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  glaze  room  in  12 
places,  such  as  glaze  mixing,  glost  and  bisque'  kilning,  clayshop  work,  finishing 
and  decorating. 

At  first  glance  very  few  dipping  quarters  appeared  dusty,  but  when  one 
considers  that  glaze  dust  usually  contains  lead,  the  mere  trace  of  dust,  pro- 
duced even  at  intervals,  becomes  a  decided  health-hazard.  As  all  dipping  and 
finishing  is  done  in  the  wet,  all  dust  is  the  result  of  carelessness  and  hurry  on 
the  part   of    the   workers    from    splashing  upon   the    floor,    upon   benches    and 


241 

boards,  and  upon  the  clothing,  and  allowing  it  to  dry,  whence  it  "kicks  up"  as  a 
fine  powder,  hardly  visible  to  the  eye  perhaps,  but  enough  in  amount  to  cause 
lead  poisoning  by  settling  on  the  lips,  and  by  inhalation.  In  4  plants  dust  ap- 
peared to  be  absolutely  controlled.  In  23  others  it  was  kept  down  enough  to 
constitute  only  a  fair  hazard,  but  in  the  remaining  26  the  possibility  from 
poisoning  from  this  source  was  great.  The  floors  and  work  benches  were  kept 
very  clean  in  10  places  and  fairly  so  in  21  more,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  22. 
In  several  places  dried  glaze  was  allowed  to  cake  on  the  floor  under  foot. 
Cement  or  other  impervious  floors  with  drains,  and  capable  of  frequent  flush- 
ing, were  installed  in  all  the  clean  places.  Although  dipping  was  done  in  a 
watery  solution,  water  and  dampness  were  no  hazard  in  27  places,  and  but 
fairly  so  in  12  more.     In  the  remaining  14,  workers  were  engaged  in  injuriously 


Fig.  70.     Hand  Glazing  of  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles. 

The    men    do    the    glazing    or    dipping;    the    girls    do,   the    finishing    or    fettling 

in  the  "wet"  over  pans  of  water. 


damp  quarters.  Light  was  good  in  27  places,  fair  in  11  more,  and  poor  in  the 
remaining  15.  Occasionally  work  was  done  in  inside  rooms  under  a  flaring  gas 
flame  burning  at  the  end  of  a  pipe.  The  ventilation  of  quarters  was  fair  to 
good  in  37  places,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  16,  due  to  confined  quarters.  Heat 
is  no  factor  in  the  /process,  but  in  9  places  it  was  very  warm,  due  to  proximity 
to  kilns.  In  4  places  strong  complaint  was  made  of  cold,  damp  quarters,  and 
in  a  total  of  16  complaint  was  made  about  inefficient  heating  in  the  winter 
season.  Some  dippers  claimed  that  the  solutions  became  so  cold  that  they 
worked  with  hands  and  arms  "lialf  frozen"  in  the  winter  time.  Drafts  were 
usually  ipurposeij  avoided,  to  keep  out  street  dust ;  on  the  other  hand,  in  some 
plants,  windows  were  allowed  to  be  open.  Fatigue  is  largely  a  question  of 
how  well  the  individual  worker  is  adapted  for  the  work  he  or  she  is  perform- 

16      O.    D. 


242 

ing,  for  although  hurrying  piecework  was  the  rule  in  practically  all  plants 
except  artware,  the  hours  were  sufficiently  short  and  recesses  frequent  enough 
for  most  of  the  workers.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  3  places,  and  varied 
between  8^-  and  10  hours  in  fhe  remaining,  the  workers  usually  leaving  when 
a  certain  output  had  been  accomplished.  Thus,  many  of  them  got  through  as 
early  as  two  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  13  places, 
f  hour  in  1  place,  J  hour  in  20  places,  and  "as  desired"  in  the  remaining  19. 
A  morning  lundi  recess  at  'about  nine  o'clock  was  observed  in  nearly  all  places. 
Outside  of  piece-work,  the  chief  factors  conducive  to  fatigue  were  monotonous 
dupliation  of  movements  and  constant  standing.  This  was  worse  for  the  dip- 
pers than  for  the  helpers,  who  had  opportunities  to  change  positions  with 
greater  frequency.  In  practically  all  places,  except  machine  dipping  in  tile 
works,  workers,  including  females,  remained  standing  constantly.     In  porcelain 


M^^^H 

iHiimii 

^H^^H^^H^^H^^^ir- '^'' 

m 

H 

^^^ 

'<iti 

n 

'^:iHHlP' 

■  i 

I^^hH^" 

Fig.  71.     Machine  Glazing  of  Art^  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles. 


works  and  in  1  or  2  stoneware  works  females  (unskilled)  were  doing  the  dip- 
ping. The  constant  leaning  and  awkward  postures  w'hich  many  workers  as- 
sumed were  also  bad  features.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  com- 
municable diseases  was  practically  no  hazard  in  8  places,  but  in  the  remaining 
45  I'here  were  observed  the  usual  dangers,  such  as  promiscuous  spitting,  the 
absence  of  cuspidors,  absence  of  proper  washing  facilities,  poor  closets  (in 
several  places  only  outside  privies),  common  drinking  cups  or  the  drinking  out 
of  jugs  and  bottles  by  several  persons,  crowding  together,  the  short  intervaled 
handling  of  ware,  and  the  lack  of  medical  supervision.  The  liability  to  slow 
poisoning,  due  to  lead  and  occasionally  to  manganese,  antimony,  arsenic  (?), 
and  chrome  colors,  was  well  enough  circumvented  to  constitute  no  hazard  in  5 
places,  and  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but  in  the  remaining  41,  the  danger  existed. 
There  was  a  possibility  of  "zinc  chills"  in  1  place  vir'here  zinc  glaze  was  fired  at 


243 

high  temperature.  Poisoning  was  almost  altogether  a  question  of  personal 
carefulness,  but  many  managements  were  at  fault  in  not  providing  adequate 
wash-places,  eating  quarters  away  from  the  dipping  rooms,  and,  especially, 
close  supervision  of  ignorant  or  careless  workers.  This  latter  failing  was 
largely  due  to  the  sub-contract  system  in  vogue,  'by  which  dippers  hired 
their  own  helpers  and  also  were  supposed  to  look  after  the  cleanliness  of 
their  own  quarters.  As  a  result  of  this,  the  responsibility  for  cleanliness  was 
too  much  "everybody's  business".  As  might  be  expected  from  those  engaged 
at  piece-work,  different  standards  of  cleanliness  prevailed.  All  such  workers 
should  wear  special  clothing,  including  caps  for  the  females,  and  it  is  hard  to 
see  why- these  should  not  be  supplied  and  kept  clean  and  in  repair  by  the  man- 
agements as  is  the  custom  in  certain  other  lead  and  poisonous  industries.  In 
tile  works  girls  were  found  to  be  supplied  with  linger  cots.  It  is  probable  that 
workers  were  given  a  false  sense  of  security  from  washing-up  in  barrels  of 
water  which  were  usually  placed  under  a  cold-water  faucet  and  a  steam  pipe  from 
which  to  get  steam  for  hot  water.  The  wiser  ones  used  a  tin-basin.  Such 
barrels  readily  became  a  solution  of  lead  water  after  the  first  few  hours  of 
their  filling.  Machine  dipping  in  tile  works  seemed  entirely  devoid  of  risk 
since  there  was  no  need  for  splashing;  after  that  poisoning  from  handling 
the  unbaked  glaze  was  largely  a  matter  of  personal  carelessness.  The  induce- 
ment to  stiniidantisin  should  not  be  great  in  this  process,  because  of  the  rel- 
•  atively  short  hours,  but  as  the  least  amount  of  lead  in  the  human  sysem  creates 
a  desire  for  stimulants,  the  risks  can  be  appreciated.  Industrial  alcoholism  also 
exists  with  a  certain  small  percentage  of  these  workers  who  like  to  believe  that 
alcohol  counteracts  the  lead.  From  a  medical  and  physiologic  point  of  view  such 
an  assumption  is  of  course  preposterous. 

In  11  plants  all  the  workers  in  the  different  rooms  were  healthy  appearing, 
but  this  was  largely  due  to  the  newness  of  many  of  the  workers  to  the  process. 
In  34  plants  1  or  more  were  seen  who  were  under  par,  while  in  the  remaining 
8  plants  a  number  were  seen  who  were  decidedly  sickly  looking.  The  principal 
compMnts  of  the  dippers  and  their  helpers  were  the  lack  of  proper  provisions 
to  keep  down  dust,  the  poor  washing  facilities,  and  lack  of  dependable  in- 
structions on  the  prevention  of  poisoning.  Here  and  there  just  complamts  were 
made  covering  almost  the  entire  field  of  sanitation  and  hygiene.  The  investi- 
gators were  particularly  struck  with  the  large  number  of  skilled  dippers  who  were 
healthy  appearing  and  had  been  at  the  process  for  years.  This  was  explained 
best  by  the  fact  that  these  men  had  learned  how  to  keep  lead  dust  out  of  their 
mouths  and  from  the  vicinity  of  their  breathing.  Such  workers  were  in- 
variably found  to  be  very  strict,  usually  well  posted,  and  many  of  them 
lamented  that  they  could  not  impress  precautions  upon  their  helpers.  The  help- 
ers, however,  were  less  able  to  protect  themselves.  There  was  also  a  tendency 
among  many  to  belittle  the  danger  of  lead  poisoning,  due,  apparently,  to  alleged 
difficulties  in  securing  life  insurance  and  also  in  securing  helpers.  In  29  plants 
our  investigators  came  across  28  cases  of  positive  lead  poisoning,  20  cases  of 
tentative  lead  poisoning,  9  persons  who  had  had  lead  poisoning  in  the  past,  and  a 
considerable  number  of  "hearsay"  cases.  Some  of  these  were  investigated,  and 
2  or  3  persons  found  who  were  at  home  suffering  from  lead  palsies  and  the 
like.  Comments.  — ^t  believe  that  the  placarding  of  all  these  quarters  with 
instructions  to  workers  upon  "How  to  prevent  lead  poisoning",  would  prove  a 
big  feature  in  preventing  it.     Fortunately,  lead  does  not  enter  the  human  body 


244 

through  the  skin,'  and  it  would  seem  to  be  fairly  easy  to  keep  it  out  of  the 
nose  and  mouth.  Keep  down  tlie  dust  and  keep  everything  which  goes  into  the 
mouth  free  from  the  least  suggestion  of  glaze  and  there  would  be  no  lead 
poisoning.  An  ideal  plan  would  be  health  placards,  health  instructions,  the 
investigation  of  every  case  of  sickness  by  a  competent  physician,  prompt 
discipline  for  infraction  of  health  rules,  janitorial  service  provided  by  the 
managements  (as  was  done  in  some  places),  special  work  clothes,  aprons  and 
caps,  a  place  outside  of  the  dipping  quarters  to  keep  street  clothes  and  lunches, 
good  washing  facilities  (including  soap,  individual  towels,  nail  files  or  brushes, 
and  individual  wash  basins  where  running  water  can  not  be  secured),  a  place 
to  eat  outside  of  the  dipping  rooms,  the  drinking  of  milk  for  breakfast,  morning 
lunch  and  noon  lunch,  and  the  adoption  of  all  methods  to  keep  the  glaze  from 
dripping  onto  the  floors  (brush  on  inside  edge  of  tub,  drain  boards  dripping 
back  into  tub,  dark  floor  to  show  up  drippings,  carrying  boards  kept  moist  or 
belt  carriers,  etc.).  With  these  precautions  we  believe  anyone  could  perform 
the  work  in  the  glazing  rooms  with  impunity.  Other  dust-producing  processes 
of  course  should  not  be  present. - 

POTTERY. BISQUE   AND    GLOST    KILNS. 

After  the  ''green"  ware  has  been  dried  and  finished  in  the  clay  rooms  it 
is  next  baked  in  the  bisque  kihis.  From  here  it  may  be  decorated  (under- 
glazing),  but  the  vast  majority  of  it  is  glazed  in  the  dipping  rooms  and  then 
fired  again  in  the  glost  kilns.  Most  ware  gets  the  two  kilning  processes,  but 
stoneware,  porcelain  ware  and  unglazed  ware  is  usually  subjected  to  but  one 
kilning.  In  small  places  both  types  of  kilns  were  in  the  same  buildings  or 
sheds  and  the  same  workers  attended  to  both.  Occasionally  a  special  gang  of 
men  emptied  the  kilns   for  a  certain  group  of   factories. 

The  bisque  kiln  process  was  investigated  in  53  establishments,  representing 
all  branches  of  the.  pottery  industry,  and  the  glost  kilning  in  44  establishments, 
representing  all  branches  except  stoneware  and  a  small  amount  of  unglazed 
ware,  as  stated.  There  was  a  total  of  1,184  males  and  36  females  (the  latter 
in  tile  factories)  who  were  employed  abouf  the  kilns.  Of  these  658  were 
bisque  kiln  workers,  384  glost  kiln  workers,  and  the  remaining  (including 
females),  drawers  and  helpers.  The  work  was  unionized  in  32  plants  inves- 
tigated, and  a  fair  to  good  type  of  workers  was  observed  in  all  places.  The 
work  is  both  skilled  and  semi-skilled.  In  approximately  half  of  the  places  the 
workers  remained  well  at  the  process.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  an  ex- 
haust or  forced  ventilation  system  for  the  kiln  room  was  observed  in  8  places. 
Howeve.r,  in  most  places  such. were  not  needed  because  of  the  spacious  char- 
acter of  the  kiln  sheds  and  the  vents  which  were  left  around  the  kilns.  In  4 
places  cuspidors  and  refuse  cans  were  observed.  Instructions  along  health 
lines  were  given  some  attention  in  8  places.  There  were  no  benefit  organiza- 
tions except  such  as  unions  maintained.  Work  quarters  were  hygienically  con- 
structed, in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  18  more,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining,  due, 
usually,  to  low  roofs,  poor  light,  crowded  spaces  and  the  like,  and  floors  dif- 
ficult to  keep  clean,  particularly  of  glaze  dust.  Sagger  washing,  sagger  placing, 
and  dipping  were  processes  oftentimes  carried  on  in  the  kiln  shed.  There  were 
175  workers  over  the  age  of  40,  but  not  more  than  10  over  the  age  of  50.  There 
were  no  youths  employed  at  this  process. 


245 

Dust  was  considered  a  fair  to  bad  hazard  to  about  §  of  the  workers,  and 
was  found  to  be  composed,  of  fliint,  clay  and  lead-glaze.  Powdered  flint  was 
often  used  to  protect  the  ware  in  the  saggers.  The  glost  kiln  workers  were 
the  ones  who  came  in  contact  with  the  lead-glaze  dust,  this  while  they  were 
filling  saggers  with  the  ware  previous  to  kilning.  No  kiln  men  were  required 
to  do  finishing  or  scouring  of  ware.  Quarters  were  usually  brick  or  cement 
floored,  and  were  kept  well  cleaned  in  h  of  the  places.  In  many  others  cleaning 
appeared  to  be  very  infrequent.  Dampness  was  no  factor  of  the  process  ex- 
cept as  workers  had  to  leave  the  warm  kiln  sheds.  Daylight  was  poor  in  about 
half  of  the  places,  and  in  numbers  of  instances  the  workers  were  performing 
their  task  apparently  as  much  by  feeling  as  by  seeing.  The  general  ventilation 
of  quarters  was  fair  to  good  in  half  of  the  places  and  not  so  in  the  remaining 


Fig.  72.     Bisque  Kiln  House. 
'"Placing"  a  kiln  in  the  foreground ;   "drawing"  or  emptying  a  kiln  in  the 
background.     One  worker  has  a  "sagger"  on  his  head,  filled  with  dishes  to  be 
fired. 


half,  due  to  still,  dead  and  overheated  air  which  surrounded  the  kilns,  and 
occasionally  to  contamination  with  coal  gas  and  natural  gas.  Heat  constituted 
a  considerable  hazard  to  many  workers  in  half  of  the  places  and  was  found 
to  be  also  a  question  of  the  method  employed  in  drawing  the  kilns,  that  is, 
whether  sufficient  time  was  given  for  them  to  cool  ofif  before  entering  them, 
(n  some  places  cool  air  was  blown  into  them,  but  the  hot  air  forced  out 
rendered  the  kiln  sheds  extremely  warm.  Cold  viras  a  considerable  hazard  to 
about  \  of  the  employes,  due  to  the  necessity  of  going  to  a  distance  from  the 
hot  kiln  sheds  in  the  transporting  of  ware,  and  to  outdoor  privies.  In  no  places 
were  shower  baths  provided.  Fatigue  constituted  a  hazard  to  about  I  of  the 
workers  and  was  due,  chiefly,  to  hurrying  piecework,  constant  standing  (sagger 
fillers),  and  somewhat  to  the  laborious  character  of  the  work,  as  in  conveying 
and  lifting  of  heavy  saggers  filled  with  ware  in  and  out  of  the  kilns.     Usually 


246 

these  were  carried  on  the  head.  The  work  day  was  found  to  vary  considerably. 
In  only  4  plants  was  it  limited  to  8  hours,  but  in  only  one  did  it  exceed  10 
hours.  Overtime  was  seldom  the  rule.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  J  of  the 
places,  and  "as  desired"  in  practically  all  the  balance.  A  morning  recess  for 
lunch  was  also  the  rule  in  nearly  all  places.  A  large  percentage  of  the  workers 
usually  finished  up  about  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  and  went  home,  al- 
though kiln  men  were  usually  required  to  work  a  little  longer  than  glaze  dip- 
pers. The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  a  bad 
hazard  in  40  places  and  fairly  so  in  some  of  the  remaining,  due,  chiefly,  to 
promiscuous   spitting,   absence  of   cuspidors,  poor  or  absent  washing   facilities, 


Fig.  73.     Glost  Kiln  House. 
Note   spacious   quarters,   high   ceiling,   good   lighting   system,   clean   floors. 


poor  closets,  common  drinking  cups  and  the  lack  of  medical  supervision.  But 
3  or  4  of  the  most  modern  places  had  a  hospital  or  emergency  surgical  room, 
while  first  aid  equipments  were  absent  or  very  inadequate  in  most  places.  The 
short-intervaled  handling,  particularly  of  small  ware,  gave  fair  opportunity  for 
the  spread  of  venereal  and  infectious  diseases  among  a  certain  part  of  the 
workers.  In  all  glost  kiln  quarters  employing  lead  in  any  form  there  was  a 
risk  of  lead  poisoning.  This  risk  was  bad  in  37^  of  the  44  glost  kiln  sheds  in- 
spected. ■  It  was  largely  a  question  of  personal  hygiene,  but  was  greatly  en- 
hanced by  the  absence  or  inadequacy  of  washing  facilities.  The  chief  risk 
came  from  handling  the  ware  upon  which  the  glaze  had  just  dried,  and  from 
which  it  could  be  wiped  off  like  flour.     On  this  account  it  was  difficult  to  keep 


247 

it  out  of  the  air,  and  in  some  instances,  particularly  in  art  and  colored'  ware, 
it  was  composed  of  as  high  as  50%  lead.  The  industrial  inducement  to 
alcoholism  was  chiefly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  dust  in'haled,  the  in- 
adequacy of  drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  liability  to  lead  poisoning. 

In  but  6  plants  were  all  kiln  workers  healthy  appearing.  The  chief 
complaints  of  the  workmen  were  the  breathing  of  dust,  poor  washing  facilities, 
poor  closets,  and  (rarely)  heat  exposure.  The  vast  majority  of  glost  kiln 
workers  were  ignorant  of  the  harmfulness  of  the  glazed  ware  which  they  were 
handling,  especially  in  china  ware  potteries  where  it  was  thought  that  there 
was  not  enough  lead  present  to  cause  harm.  Our  investigators  found  10 
positive  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  15  more  which  were  tentative,  and  10  who  said 
they  had  had  lead  poisoning  diagnosed  by  physicians  within  the  past  few 
months.  In  addition,  numerous  hearsay  cases  were  cited.  These  cases  were 
divided  among  the  different  pottery  branches  as  follows :  china  and  white- 
ware  30,  art  and  colored  ware  4,  tiles  1. 

Comments.  —  The  workers  should  be  given  enlightenment  by  health  placards 
and  instructions  upon  the  dangers  of  lead  poisoning.  They  should  be  pro- 
vided with  washing  facilities,  including  soap  and  towels,  and  with  work  clothes 
or  aprons  which  could  be  easily  cleaned  of  dust.  Floors  in  glost  kiln  quarters, 
particularly  where  the  saggers  are  filled,  should  be  flushed  once  or  twice  a  day, 
and  benches  kept  washed  clean,  as  well  as  carrying  boards.  Lunches  should  be 
eaten  elsewhere.  In  general,  everything  possible  should  be  done  to  prevent 
dust  in  both  types  of  kiln  rooms  and  to  dampen  or  remove  it  when  it  occurs. 
The  physiologic  necessity  for  shower  baths  for  this  type  of  workers  has  been 
commented  upon  in  Part  III.  In  many  places  a  useless  loss  of  energy  was 
saved  the  workers  by  having  the  entrances  to  the  kilns  at  the  floor  level  in- 
stead of  having  to  walk  up  a  board  3  or  4  feet  or  higher  to  the  kiln  door 
entrance.  Port-holes  or  windows  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  kilns  appeared  to 
give  the  best  kiln  shed  ventilation  when  they  were  below  the  level  of  the 
roof,  thus  creating  a  draft  or  suction  within  the  shed.  Where  quarters  are  not 
spacious,   forced  ventilation   systems   should  be   installed. 

POTTERY. FETTLING   AND   FINISHING   PROCESSES. 

The  processes  here  described  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  finishing 
done  upon  "green"  ware  in  the  clay  room  (q.v.),  but,  after  the  pottery  ware 
has  come  out  of  both  bisque  and  glost  kilns,  it  is  rubbed,  sanded,  dressed,  or 
"fettled",  the  two  latter  processes  usually  being  performed  with  a  small  steel 
knife  which  removes  little  projections  and  other  imperfections  in  the  ware. 
The  work  is  largely  done  in  warehouse  rooms  where  the  ware  is  stored 
temporarily  between  processes.  Females  constitute  the  majority  of  the  work- 
ers and  they  sit  about  on  low  stools  grouped  about  baskets. 

This  process  was  inves!tigated  in  38  establishments  representing  all 
branches  of  the  pottery  industry.  It  was  found  to  engage  a  relatively  large 
number  of  persons  in  ohina,  tile  and  porcelain  factories,  and  relatively  few  in 
the  art  and  stoneware  factories.  It  employed  slightly  more  persons  on  the 
bisque  ware  than  on  the  glazed  ware.  In  the  plants  investigated  there  were  559 
females  and  220  males  so  employed,  or  a  total  of  779  wage-earners.  Except  in 
some  tile  and  porcelain  processes,  the  work  was  done  entirely  by  hand.  Unions 
existed  in  33  of  the  plants,  although  but  few  of  this  class  of  workers  belonged 


248 

to  them.  There  seemed  to  be  a  manifest  interest  in  workers'  welfare  in  8 
plants,  fairly  so  in  26  more,  not  so  in  2  more,  while  this  was  not  determined  in 
the  remaining  2.  While  the  work  is  of  unskilled  character,  a  fair  to  good 
class  of  employes  were  observed.  Their  steadiness  at  the  work  was  a  very 
variable  factor. 

In  one  place  only  were  ex'haust  systems  or  other  mechanical  arrange- 
ments made  for  removing  the  dust  from  the  vicinity  of  the  workers  where 
such  should  have  been  present  in  a  considerable  majority  of  all  places.  In  4 
places,  room  cleaning  methods  were  very  good,  while  cuspidors  and  garbage 
cans  were  provided.  But  very  few  of  the  workers  were  supplied  with  stools 
or  chairs  having  backs.  Very  few  also  enjoyed  any  sick  benefit  privileges. 
The  general  construction  of  the  workroom  was  hygienically  good  for  the  purpose 
in  6  places,  and  fair  to  bad  in  all  the  balance.  Usually  the  workers  were  seated  in 
large  warehouse  rooms  between  shelving  and  stock  and  in  quarters  which  were 
diisfy.  only  infrequently  cleaned,  poorly  lighted,  insufficiently  heated,  and,  occa- 


FiG.  74.     Finishing  or  "Dressing"  Ware  in  Bisoue  Warehouse. 


sionally,  even  in  damp  basement  quarters,  or  quarters  which  were  very  drafty. 
With  but  few  exceptions,  washing  facilities  were  at  a  premium  or  absent,  as 
were  also  lunch  rooms,  rest  rooms,  change  rooms,  lockers,  and  the  like. 
Closets  were  usually  quite  inadequate  and  poorly  constructed,  and  oftentimes 
required  passing  to  the  outdoors  to  get  to  them.  In  respect  to  the  above  de- 
scribed ihealtlh  hazards,  8  places  were  found  to  be  good,  9  fair,  and  the  re- 
maining 21  bad.  Occasionally,  the  work  was  done  in  the  vicinity  of  the  kilns 
or  in  lofts  surrounding  the  upper  part  of  the  kilns  where  it  was  unduly  hot. 
Fatigue  and  inactivity  were  factors  in  practically  all  places,  due  to  awkward 
positions  in  which  the  workers  sat,  to  the  sedentary  character  of  the  work, 
hurrying  piece-work,  monotony,  stools  without  backs,  as  well  as  incessant  noise, 
as  in  the  dressing  of  glazed  ware.  The  workday  was  variable  in  the  majority 
of  places,  but  usually  ranged  between  8  and  10  hours.  In  fact  in  a  large  number 
of  places  the  hours  were  "as  desired",  and  this  applied  also  to  the  noon  recess. 
While  very   few,   apparently,  worked   more   than    10   hours   a   day,   a   large   ma- 


249 

jority  took  less  than  J  hour  for  the  noon  recess.  A  good  feature  was  the  rule 
in  most  places  to  observe  a  morning  recess  of  about  10  to  15  minutes  for  a 
lunch  which  was  eaten  in  the  workrooms  in  nearly  all  places.  Wihile  the  large 
majority  of  workers  were  girls  and  young  females,  there  was  a  scattering  of 
older  women,  even  up  into  the  sixties.  The  liabihty  to  the  contraction  of 
communicable  diseases  constituted  a  fair  to  bad  hazard  in  35  places,  due  chiefly 
to  close  crowding  together  of  the  workers  (often  with  their  heads  nearly  touch- 
ing as  they  bent  over  the  large  basket  before  them),  common  drinking  cups, 
poor  or  absent  washing  facilities,  promiscuous  spitting  about  the  dusty  floors, 
improper  toilets,  and  the  absence  of  medical  supervision.  Poisoning  was  not  a 
hazard  of  the  process  as  a  rule,  because,  even,  with  those  working  on  glazed 
ware  the  latter  had  been  previously  kilned.  However,  some  workers  were 
found  to  be  doing  work  which  brought  them  in  contact  with  lead.  The  in- 
dustrial  inducement   to   stiniulantism   was    considerable   and    was    in    proportion 


Fig.  75.     Finishing  or  "Dressing"  Glost  Ware,  After  Same  Has  Been 
Drawn  from  Glost  Kilns. 


to  the  amount  of  dust  breathed  from  the  process,  the  factors  of  fatigue  and 
inactivity  above  stated,  as  well  as  the  depressing  influences  of  insanitary 
workrooms,  where  such  existed. 

While  a  goodly  number  of  employes  appeared  Jiale  and  hearty,  this  could 
not  be  said  of  the  majority.  The  chief  complaint  of  the  workers  was  the 
breathing  of  the  dust  created  in  the  sanding,  rubbing,  or  "fettling"  of  the 
ware,  getting  particles  into  the  eyes,  and  the  lack  of  proper  sanitary  con- 
veniences. Scouring  with  bristle  wheels  (occasionally  observed),  the  grinding 
processes  in  tile  works  and  fettling  in  porcelain  shops  were  the  dustiest 
processes  observed,  and  in  no  place  was  there  a  blower  system  to  provide  for 
thjs.  Too  much  dependence  was  put  upon  the  heavy  character  of  the  dust  to 
keep  it  out  of  the  breathing  atmosphere.  Other  than  the  efifects  of  dust,  3 
cases  of  lead  poisoning  were  seen  among  workers  who  were  engaged  on 
glazed  ware.  Comments.  —  It  appears  to  be  the  custom  abroad  to  do  this  class 
of  work  over  flat  trays  of  water  on  benches   at  the  backs  of  which  are  ex- 


250 

haust  hoods  which  draw  the  dust 'away  from  the  faces  of  the  operators.  The 
work  should  be  done  also  in  as  moist  a  condition  as  possible.  A  good  feature 
in  some  plants  was  the  interruption  of  the  sedentary  character  of  the  work 
by  requiring  the  employes  to  secure  their  owm  supplies  of  materials  and  con- 
vey the  same  awaj^  when  finished.  Finishing  of  plates  and  similar  china-w-are 
can  be  done  in  sieves  with  broken  w^are,  the  whole  placed  in  a  tumbler  and 
revolved.  Hand  brushing  can  be  done  inside  of  cabinets  or  hoods,  or  over 
slatted   table  tops  with  down  draft  suctions. 

POTTERY. DECORATING. 

Decorating  in  potteries  maj-  be  done  before  or  after  the  glaze  is  applied, 
while  the  glaze  itself  may  be  colored.  The  vast  majority  of  the  decorating  is 
done  after  the  ware  has  been  glazed  and  baked.  The  chief  processes  consist  in 
laying  on  decalcomania  transfers,  by  "sizing"  wdth  turpentine,  stamping  on  im- 
pressions, 'iining"  w-ith  gold  stripes  and  gilding,  while  in  artware  and  stone- 
ware, color  spraying   (tinting)   and  hand-painting,  or  paint-dipping  is  frequently 


Fig.  76.     Decorating  Department. 
A  row  of  gilders  applying  coin  gold  to  the  ware. 


done.  There  is  also  some  direct  printing  on  of  colors,  and  very  infrequently 
"ground  laying",  by  which  the  colors  are  dusted  on.  (]\Iottled  coloring  in  tile 
works  has  been  considered  under  "glazing".) 

The  decorating  process  was  investigated  in  40  establishments  and  en- 
gaged 1,101  employes,  of  whom  404  were  males  and  689  were  females.  In  some 
of  the  plants  a  few  of  the  workers  were  ignorant  foreigners  unable  to  speak 
English.  With  this  exception  all  were  of  an  intelligent  class,  while  many  were 
skilled  and  old-time  employes.  The  unskilled,  who  constituted  the  majority, 
for  numerous  reasons,  did  not  work  very  steadily.  Health  appliances  consist- 
ing of  exhaust  hoods  to  draw  off  the  sprays  were  present  in  all  places  where 
tinting  was  done,  althougth  their  efficiency  was  questionable  in  a  number  of 
instances.  In  1  establishment  where  considerable  "ground  laying"  was  done,  an 
arrangement  was  at  hand  which  completel}^  confined  the  dust.  Air-conditioning 
mechanisms  for  general  room  ventilation  were  efficient  in  4  places,  fair  in  3, 
and  absent  in  the  remaining  33.  Instructions  along  health  lines  were  well  given 
in  three  places  only.     This   extended  to   care  of   fingernails,   allowing  time   for 


251 

washing  up,  and  all  sanitary  conveniences.  Health  placards  were  not  observed. 
Organized  sick  benefit  privileges  were  features  for  t'he  members  of  unions  only. 
Workrooms  were  hygienically  constructed  in  15  places,  but  not  so  in  the  re- 
maining 25.  Other  processes  such  as  dipping,  clay-room  work  and  storage  were 
also  present  in  7  plants.  In  some  places  the  different  sub-processes  were  done 
in  small  rooms  by  themselves,  but  usually  all  processes  were  carried  on  in  one 
or  two  large  rooms.    The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows  : 

Number    of 
Age  Groups.  Wage-earners. 

Over    50    years 10 

Between  45  to  50 27 

Between  40  to  45  54 

Between  20  to  40    * 895 

Under   20    . . 115 

A  great  many  females  and  quite  young  girls  were  employed. 


Fig.  77.     Decorating  Department. 
Decalcomania  machines  in  the  background. 


Work  quarters  were  kept  free  from  dust  in  12  places,  fairly  so  in  23  others, 
and  not  so  in  the  remaining  16.  Outside  of  tinting,  however,  (and  the  rare 
"ground-laying"  mentioned),  the  dust  came  from  other  causes  than  the  processes 
themselves.  Cleanliness  of  quarters  obtained  in  about  the  same  proportion  of 
places.  In  6  places  quarters  were  damp  enough  to  constitute  a  bad  hazard,  and 
in  10  others  there  was  some  question  as  to  this.  Light  was  good  for  all  work- 
ers in  22  places,  but  for  some  it  was  only  fair  in  13  places,  and  bad  in  the 
remaining  5.-  In  some  places  workers  were  found  busily  engaged  at  close  eye 
work  under  naked  electric  lamps.  The  air  of  workrooms  was  very  good  in  5 
places,  because  of  exhaust  systems,  spacious  quarters,  or  the  absence  of 
features  to  contaminate  it;  it  was  fair  in  22  more,  and  bad  in  the  remaining 
13.  Especially  were  turpentine  fumes  noted.  Heat  was  no  factor  in  29 
places,  fairly  so  in  5  more,  but  was  bad  in  6  places,  due  to  proximity  of 
drying  ovens  and  kilns.  Cold,  due  to  inefficient  heating,  was  apparently  a 
just  complaint  in  7  places.  Fatigue  was  some  factor  in  28  places,  due,  prin- 
cipally, to  hurrying  piece-work,  constant  application  at  the  same  manipulations 


252 

and  less  often  to  constant  standing  still,  (in  some  instances,  girls,  9  hours 
per  day  on  a  concrete  floor),  chairs  without  backs  and  long  hours.  Artists 
and  designers  had  the  same  risks  as  described  elsewhere.  The  workday  was 
found  to  be  .8  hours  in  4  places,  up  to  9  hours  in  6  places,  and  between  9 
and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  28.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  10  places, 
^  hours  in  1  place,  ^  hour  in  10  places,  and  "as  desired"  in  the  remain- 
ing 19.  The  usual  morning  lunch  recess  was  allowed  in  most  places  at 
about  9  a.  m.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  fair 
to  bad  hazard  in  33  places,  due  to  various  factors  such  as  the  common  use 
of  drinking  cups  and  towels,  inadequate  washing  facilities,  poor  closets, 
spitting  on   the   floors,  the   absence   of   cuspidors,   separate   lockers   in   which   to 


Fig.  78.     Pottery  Tinting  or  Aerographing. 

This    was   one   of   the   most    efficient    systems    seen.     Workers    well   separated. 

Powerful  exhaust  catches  all  the  fine  spray.    Note  also  seats  with  back  rests. 


hang  clothing,  and  the  absence  of  medical  supervision.  The  tinters  were  the 
most  exposed  to  poisoning,  this  from  the  lead  contained  in  the  fine  sprays 
which  they  used.  Since  cobalt  is  obtained  from  arsenical  ores  there  is  danger 
of  arsenic  poisoning  in  cobalt  spraying.  While  tinting  was  always  done  in 
a  hood  the  front  opening  of  this  ranged  from  4  to  10  feet  square  and  per- 
mitted of  escape  of  a  certain  amount  of  spray.  This  could  be  seen  by  stains 
on  the  surroundings,  the  workers'  clothing  and,  even,  faces,  in  some  instances. 
It  was  favored  also  by  having  a  row  of  such  workers  placed  close  together. 
In  13  plants,  which  includes  most  of  those  in  the  State  where  tinting,  or 
color  spraying  is  done,  there  was  found  to  be  a  total  of  42  persons  so  engaged, 
30  males,  and  12  females.  Intelligent,  skilled  workers  did  tinting  in  some 
places;    ignorant    foreigners     (girls    as    a    rule)     in    others.     A    puch    larger 


^53 

number  of  decorators  (usually  girls)  were  exposed  to  turpentine  vapors 
from  sizing.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stiinulantisjii  was  a  hazard  to 
about  half  the  employes,  due  to  subjection  to  one  or  more  of  the  hazards 
given. 

In  general,  decorators  were  fairly  healthy  looking^  but  a  goodly  number 
were  anemic  and  under  par.  Our  investigators  saw  among  them  2  positive 
cases  of  lead  poisoning,  1  other  case  which  was  tentative,  1  "ground  layer" 
who  had  lead,  and  perhaps  arsenic,  poisoning,  and  1  person  who  was  suffer- 
ing from  benzine  varnish  poisoning.  The  chief  complaints  of  the  workers 
were  the  effect  of  turpentine  fumes  (eyes,  skin,  appetite  and  kidney  trouble), 
feeling  weak  and  tired,  loss  of  appetite  after  being  in  the  work  for  a  while, 
and  skin  eruptions  and  sore  eyes  from  the  sprays,  solutions  and  fumes  with 
which  they  came  in  contact.  Comments.  —  Gold  stampers,  liners  and  gilders 
appeared  to  be  free  of  any  poison  risk,  while  the  balance  needed  protection, 
which    in    most    places    was    not    adequate.     Varnishing    tables    should    be    sup- 


FiG.  79.    Decorating  Kiln  Room. 
Here  the  decorated  ware  is  fired.      (Exactly  similar  to  "china  firing"). 


plied  with  a  hood  and  exhaust,  within  the  opening  of  which  to  do  the  work. 
Tinters  should  wear  gloves;  the  .  openings  of  the  tinting  hoods  or  cabinets 
should  be  much  narrowed  by  curtains  or  wings,  while,  in  the  case  of  large 
work,  respirators,  caps,  and  covering  for  the  clothing  should  be  worn.  The 
best  tinting  arrangement  seen  was  in  a  tile  works  where  the  spraying  was 
done  under  a  long  hood  having  a  powerful  exhaust,  while  at  the  rear  was 
a  "water  wall,"  the  wet  surface  of  which  caught  the  escaping  spray  and 
carried  it  down  to  a  drain  in  the  cement  floor.  Every  case  of  sickness  among 
decorators  should  be  investigated  by  a  shop  physician.  Adequate  sanitary 
conveniences,  health  placards  and  instructions  are  the  remaining  important 
suggestions. 

POTTERY. — SHADING  AND  TILE  SORTING. 

This   process   was   investigated   in   4   establishments   and   consisted    in    the 
matching  of  different  shades  of  glazed  tiling  and  sometimes  other  ware.     This 


254 

was  done  by  comparing  the  ware  (largely  white  tiles)  with  standard  shades. 
There  were  a  total  of  96  employes  so  engaged,  of  whom  76  were  females. 
Fatigue  seemed  to  be  the  chief  hazard  and  due  principally  to  the  eye-strain 
involved  in  the  work  which  necessitated  the  ej^es  being  directed  downward 
for  hours  at  a  time  upon  the  glaring  white  tiles  and  glazed  surfaces.  Piece- 
work prevailed.  Monotony  was  also  a  factor,  while  in  1  place  there  were 
no  backs  to  the  stools  on  which  the  workers  sat.  The  workday  was  9  hours 
in  1  place,  and  9^  to  10  hours  in  the  remaining,  the  noon  recess  being  J4  hour, 
while  a  morning  recess  waS'  customary.  The  risk  of  lead  poisoning  from 
sorting  the  glazed  ware  (now  baked)  seemed  negligible.  Sonie  of  the  workers 
were  furnished  with  finger-cots  to  prevent  roughening  of  the  skin.  While 
careful    attention    was    given    to    window    shades    and    lighting,    many    of    the 


Fig.  80.     Shading  and  Sorting  of  Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles. 
The  girls  match  the  various  shades  of  white  (and  colored)  tiles  to  get  uniformity. 

workers  sat  directly  facing  the  windows.  Complaints.  —  Some  of  the  workers 
said  they  were  bothered  with  headaches  at  first,  but  soon  got  used  to  the 
work.  Comments.  —  The  wearing  of  eyeshades,  occular  corrections  where 
necessary,  light  from  the  side  instead  of  the  front,  chairs  with  backs,  and  the 
interruption  of  sedentary  work  by  requiring  the  workers  to  get  their  own 
supplies  are  the  chief  suggestions. 


POTTERY. TILE  MOUNTING. 

In  order  to  give  mosaic  effects,  the  small  tiles  are  sorted  out  according 
to  colors  and  shapes,  usually  by  females,  and  applied  to  a  gummed  paper 
surface,    a    flour    water    paste    being    used.     Althoug^h    stools    were    provided. 


255 


( 

SE^-^:^^.:--    "~ 

Fig.  81.     Art,  Floor  and  Wall  Tiles. 

The  ceramic  mosaic  tiles  are  arranged  by  girls  and  pasted  on  sheets  of  paper, 

each  containing  about  two  square  feet  of  tiles. 

most  of  the  workers  stood.  They  worked  piece-work,  sometimes  in  light 
which  was  not  good  and  in  1  or  2  places  exposed  to  heat  from  other  processes. 
They  usually  wore  finger-cots  to  prevent  the  wear  and  tear  upon  the  fingers. 
Careless  handling  and  dumping  of  boxes  of  tiles  created  some  dust. 

POTTERY. PACKING  AND   SHIPPING. 

Packing    pottery    ware    for    shipping    purposes    employes    a    considerable 
number  of  workers,  usually  men.     This  process  was  found  to  be  a  very  dusty 


W^B 

^^ 

^^^-^sr^s 

^^^^HH 

^B 

ft     i^^HI 

w^^KK^^^^^^^^U^^M 

1^ 

mf 

I  jM 

^^1 

ffltr^^.fPpW 

ES"  ^^J 

L! 

^1^ 

Fig.  82.     Packing. 
Here  the  ware  is  packed  in  hay  or  straw   for  shipping. 


256 

one,  due  to  the  dust  and  dirt  coming  out  of  the  bales  of  low-grade  straw 
used  for  packing  purposes.  The  work  was  done  many  times  in  dark,  poorly 
ventilated  quarters,  sometimes  in  damp  basements,  or  in  open  freight  cars, 
and  usually  as  a  piece-work  process.  Persons  with  any  tendency  toward 
consumption  should  not  be  employed  at  this  process.  In  one  instance  a  young 
man  was  seen  who  had  returned  to  work  packing  pottery  in  freight  cars 
after  a  long  illness  from  consumption  which  had  been  checked  by  careful  treat- 
ment in  a  sanitorium.  Return  to  this  work  will  unquestionably  restult  in  a 
return  of  his  disease. 

GLASS. INGREDIENT   MIXING. 

This  process  consists  in  combining  the  various  silicous  materials,  alkalis, 
and  ot<her  ingredients  used  in  the  manufacture  of  the  matrix  for  glass.  The 
different  materials  are  contained  in  bins  and  hoppers,  and  are  mixed  in  certain 
proportions  after  weighing  or  measuring.  The  work  is  done  usually  in  part 
by  machinery  and  in  part  by  hand  labor,  the  latter  causing  a  great  deal  of 
dust  because   of   shoveling   and   scooping. 

This  process  was  investigated  in  16  establishments  .employing  a  total  of 
94  wage-earners,  all  males.  Hence  it  will  be  seen  that  there  are  but  a  few- 
men  so  employed  in  any  establishment.  Methods  were  modern  in  10  places, 
fairly  so  in  3  others,  and  antiquated  in  3.  The  work  was  largely  done  by 
foreign  laborers,  non-English  speaking,  in  11  places.  In  5  smaller  places  all 
workers  were  English-speaking.  They  appeared  to  remain  steadily  .  at  the 
work  in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  3  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5. 
Mechanical  appliances,  hooded  automatic  mixers  to  confine  and  remove  the 
dust  were  absent  in  12  places,  practically  so  in  2,  and  of  good  efficiency  in 
the  remaining  2  places.  The  work  is  unskilled.  But  8  men  were  over  40 
years  of  age.  The  workplaces  were  considered  as  hygienically  constructed 
in  7  places,  fairly  so  in  4  others,  and  had  in  the  remaining  5.  The  work 
was  invariably  done  in  a  part  of  the  plant  by  itself,  and  not  in  quarters  with 
other  processes. 

Dust  in  the  air  was  noted  in  all  places.  In  1  it  was  negligible,  in  8 
fairly  so,  and  in  12  places  it  was  bad,  due  to  the  manner  of  handling  the 
ingredients.  In  small  places  workmen  were  only  so  employed  at  intervals, 
but  in  large  places  there  were  several  practically  continuously  engaged. 
Accumulations  of  dust  and  dirt  were  negligible  in  3  places,  fairly  so  in  2 
others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  11.  Dampness  is  no  feature  of  the  process 
itself,  but  in  1  place  the  work  was  done  in  a  very  damp  cellar.  iLight  was 
good  in  13  places,  fair  in  1,  and  bad  in  2  places,  due  to  poor  locations.  Room 
ventilation  was  generally  bad  in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  5,  and  good  in  3,  the 
form'er  due  both  to  contamination  of  the  air  with  dusts  and  to  the  confine- 
ment of  the  quarters.  ■  Heat  was  no  factor  in  12  places.  It  was  fairly  warm 
in  1  place  and  hot  in  2  places,  due  to  proximity  to  other  proces.ses.  Cold  and 
drafts  were  no  features  in  10  places,  were  a  fair  hazard  in  3,  and  more  so  in 
the  remaining  3,  due  to  weather  exposure,  and  absence  of  heating  methods. 
Fatigue  was  hardly  a  feature  except  for  long  hours,  as  noted  in  1  place.  The 
workday  was  9  to  10  hours  in  15  places  and  12  hours  in  the  remaining.  The 
noon  recess  was  H  hour  in  5  places,  1  hour  in  10  places,  and  none  in  1  place 
(the  same  place  which  required  a  12  hour  day  and  7  days  a  week,  with 
alternations    between    night    shift    and    day    shift    once    every    week.)      Other 


257 

recesses  were  frequent  enough  for  rest  intervals  in  all  places.  The  con- 
traction of  co))!iiiunicab\e  diseases  was  a  bad  hazard  in  13  places  and  fairly 
,so  in  the  remaining  3,  due,  principally,  to  dust,  dirt,  improper  wash-places 
and  closets,  spitting  into  the  dusts,  absence  of  cuspidors,  lack  of  physical 
examinations  and  medical  supervision,  and  use  of  common  cups.  Poisons 
were  a  negligible  hazard  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  3  others,  but  a  considerable 
hazard  to  some  employes  in  the  remaining  11.  These  poisons  were  found 
to  consist  of  litharge,  red  lead,  soda  ash,  arsenic,  manganese  dioxide  and 
occasionally  antimony,  all  in  the  form  of  dust.  The  hazards  were,  chiefly, 
ignorance    of    the    workers,    lack    of    instructions,    disregard    of    instructions, 


Fig.  '83.     Batch  House  in  Glass  Factory. 
Glass  ingredient  mixing. 


wearing  of  mustaches,  eating  and  chewing  in  work-rooms,  lack  of  medical 
supervision  and  respirators,  proper  washing  facilities  and  closets,  and  of 
mechanical  protection  from  poisonous  dusts.  The  poisonous  ingredients  are 
only  a  small  part  of  the  material,  and  in  some  places  are  not  used,  while 
again  red  lead  and  arsenic  trioxide  are  consumed  quite  extensively,  —  one 
plant  claiming  they  used  two  tons  of  the  arsenic  per  month.  Usually  an  intel- 
ligent worker  or  the  foreman  handled  the  arsenic,  but  lead  and  the  other  poisons 
were  mixed  by  ignorant  workers,  usually  foreigners.  The  inducement  to 
industrial  alcoholism  was  present  in  6  places,  and  fairly  so  in  5  more,  due  to 
inadequate  drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  depressing  influences  of  the  hazards 
above  stated. 

17     o.  B. 


258 

The  appearance  of  the  workers  was  good  in  4  places,  in  8  there  were 
1  or  more  who  appeared  only  fairly  healthy,  while  in  the  remaining  4  places 
several  were  certainly  in  need  of  a  physical  examination.  Many  workers 
were  wearing  handkerchiefs  over  the  nose  and  mouth  for  protection  against 
the  dust.  The  workmen's  chief  complaints  were  breathing  of  the  dust,  cough- 
ing, frequent  nose-bleed  (from  soda-ash,  especially),  sore  feet  (due  prin- 
cipally to  the  same  cause),  and,  in  1  place,  the  long  hours.  Our  investigators 
found  among  the  workers  5  positive  cases  of  plumbism,  1  tentative  case  of 
plumbism,  1  case  of  dermatitis,  and  1  case  of  perforated  nasal  septum  (an 
effect  of  breathing  alkali  dusts)  ;  in  addition,  2  other  cases  of  the  last  com- 
plaint were  reported,  but  not  seen  by  our  representatives.  Comnvents.  —  This 
work  should  be  done  in  light,  ventilated,  dry  quarters,  above  ground  preferably, 
and,  where  mechanical  means  will  not  confine  dust,  workers  should  be 
furnished  respirators  of  some  sort,  and  compelled  to  wear  them.  Particularly 
should  cuspidors  be  plentiful,  and  those  handling  or  exposed  to  poisonous 
dusts  should  be  selected  for  intelligence,  properly  instructed,  and  ,seen  by  a 
physician  at  least  once  a  month.  The  hazards  above  noted  suggest  other  cor- 
rective measures. 

GLASS. BLOWING  BY   HAND. 

In  this  process  the  end  of  the  blowpipe  is  passed  through  a  circular 
opening  in  the  wall  of  the  glass  furnace,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  molten 
glass  collected  upon  its  end.  The  pipe  is  then  withdrawn,  placed  to  the  lips 
and  the  blowing  started.  It  is  then  usually  handed  to  another  man,  the  skilled 
glass-blower,  who,  while  turning  it,  continues  the  blowing,  either  in  the  air 
or  with  the  ball  of  glass  in  a  mold.  .  Occasionally,  a  third  blower  is  neces- 
sary, especially  on  large  objects.  The  glass  object  is  next  freed  from  the 
blowpipe,  usually  by  a  boy  who  sits  below  and  in  front  of  the  glass-blowers. 
After  some  trimming  while  still  hot,  the  glass  object  is  carried  to  an  anneal- 
ing furnace  (or  leer)  nearby,  usually  by  boys.  After  a  proper  time  the  objects 
are  removed  from  the  annealing  furnace  by  hand  or  mechanically. 

This  process  is  here  reported  upon  in  19  places,  and  employed  a  total 
of  3,369  wage-earners,  all  males.  Of  these,  767,  or  28.6%  were  boys  under 
20.  In  4  of  the  19  places  no  youths  were  employed  at  all,  while  in  1  place 
there  were  46  youths  out  of  the  100  employed  at  glass  blowing.  The  attitude 
toward  workers  seemed  good  in  14  places,  fairly  so  in  4  others  and  not  so 
in  the  1  remaining.  All  workers  were  of  an  intelligent  type  in  8  places,  all 
fairly  so  in  8  more,  while  in  the  remaining  3  the  workers  were  largely 
ignorant  foreigners.  The  workers  appeared  to  remain  well  at  the  process  in 
12  places,  fairly  so  in  5  others,  and  to  be  of  short  -stay  in  the  2  remaining. 
Health  appliances  (described  below)  were  of  fair  efficiency  in  12  places, 
inefficient  in  5  others  and  absent  in  the  2  remaining.  In  all  places  skilled 
glass-blowers  were  employed,  but  of  the  total  employes  less  than  1/10  could 
be  considered  skilled.  Of  the  total  employes,  263  were  over  40  years  of  age, 
but  very  few  over  50 ;  2,349  were  between  20  and  40,  and  757  were  under  20 
years  of  age.  The  workplace  was  hygienically  constructed  in  11  places,  fairly 
so  in  3  others  and  bad  in  the  remaining  5.  Other  processes  than  glass  blow- 
ing or  pressing,  as  a  rule,  were  not  done  in  the  glass  blowing  quarters, 
although  in  8  places  finishing  processes  were  present. 

The  process  in  itself  is  not  dusty.  However,  accumulations  of  broken 
glass,    largely    pulverized    into    a    fairly    fine    dust,    were    allowed    to    collect 


259 

on  the  floors  to  an  obnoxious  extent  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  4  others,  while 
in  the  remaining  9  the  floors  were  kept  sanitary.  Dampness  is  no  feature 
of  the  process.  Light,  both  natural  and  artificial,  was  good  in  15  places,  while 
in  the  4  remaining  it  was  fair  to  bad.  The  glow  from  the  furnace  openings 
and  the  molten  glass  was  largely  depended  upon  for  light  in  many  places.  On 
this  account  shadows  and  dark  places  promoted  the  likelihood  of  accidents. 
General  room  ventilation  was  good  in  12  places  and  fair  to  bad  in  the  remain- 
ing 7,  due  to  crowded  quarters,  ^scape  of  gases  and  faulty  construction  for 
ventilation.  Exposure  of  the  workers  to  high  temperature  was  pronounced 
in   13  places,   fairly  so  in  4  others,   and  practically  negligible   in   the   remaining 


Fig.  84.     Glass  Furnace  Room. 
Hand  blowing  and  machine  pressing  of  glassware. 


2.  In  all  the  hot  places  much  protection  could  have  been  accorded  by  a 
greater  use  of  heat  protecting  appliances  (see  below).  In  some  places  visited 
the  heat  to  which  both  men  and  boys  were  exposed  was  excessive.  Cold 
drafts  of  air,  going  from  hot  to  cool  places,  inefficient  heating  in  the  outskirts 
of  the  room,  sedentary  work,  with  drafts  upon  the  back,  especially  in  winter, 
were  a  bad  health-hazard  in  11  places,  fair  in  6  others  and  negligible  in  the 
remaining  2.  The  work  is  not  unduly  fatiguing  to  normal  adults,  especially 
after  a  little  experience,  but  many  youths  were  found  to  be  doing  exhaust- 
ing labor.  This  feature  was  rendered  much  worse  by  the  heat.  The  hours 
of  labor  varied  greatly  in  different  places.  In  one  place  there  were  4  shifts 
of  6  hours  each;  in  3  places  8  shifts  of  8  hours;  in  12  places  the  work  period 


26o 

ranged  from  8^  tc  9  hours ;  in  2  places  from  9J  to  10  hours ;  in  4  places  the 
total  workday  was  12  hours,  but  in  3  of  these  there  wa;s  a  middle  interval  of 
4  hours  off.  In  places  with  the  longer  workday,  brief  respites  from  work  at 
intervals  were  the  rule.  The  "noon"  recess  was  ^  hour  in  4  places,  from 
1  to  IJ  hours  in  11  places,  and,  as  mentioned,  4  hours  in  3  places.  In  one 
place  there  was  no  noon  recess,  and  the  workers  had  to  remain  within  the 
plant  for  a  day  of  12  hours,  with,  however,  numerous  rest  intervals.  This 
was  the  plan  for  7  days  per  week.  Shifts  usually  changed  once  a  week — 
too  frequent  for  workers  to  get  used  to  it,  thereby  resulting  in  loss  of  sleep. 
Other  fatigue  fac'itors  were  piece-work,  speeding  up,  monotony,  constant 
standing  for  some,  faulty  postures  "(of  ^sedentary  workers),  and  lifting  and 
straining,  especially  for  youths.  While  all  helpers,  including  the  boys,  were 
paid  on  a  day  work  plan,  they  were  required  to  keep  up  with  the  skilled 
glass-blowers  who  worked  piece-work  in  nearly  all  places.  Although  boys 
under  18  are  prevented  by  law  from  workitjg  after  10  o'clock  at  night,  the 
irregular  shift's,  irregular  eating  and  sleeping  periods,  quitting  and  going  to 
work  at  almost  all  hours  of  the  day  and  night,  and,  in  some  places,  sleeping 
around  the  plant,  are  decidedly  unphysiological  factors  for  even  adult  human 
beings.  To  sum  up,  fatigue  hazards  were  considered  bad  in  14  places  and 
fair  to  negligible  in  the  remaining  5.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable . 
diseases  was  considered  bad  in  13  places,  and  fair  to  negligible  in  the  remain- 
ing 6,  due  to  such  hazards  as  crowding  of  workers,  promiscuous  spitting 
onto  dusty  floors,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  or  absent  wash-places, 
improper  closets,  common  drinking  cups,  the  successive  mouthing  of  blow- 
pipes by  2  and  sometimes  3  personjs,  the  lack  of  goggles,  frequency  of  trivial 
injuries,  the  lack  of  health  certificates  for  youths  and  of  physical  examina- 
tions for  adults.  Poisoning  is  hardly  a  factor  in  this  process.  The  induce- 
ment to  industrial  alcoholism  was  bad  in  5  places,  fairly  so  in  12  others  and 
negligible  in  the  remaining  2,  due  to  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities, 
combined  with  the  depressing  influences  above  described. 

In  but  3  places  were  the  workers  all  healthy  looking,  in  12  others  a 
few  appeared  in  need  of  a  health  examination,  while  in  4  a  number  of  workers 
were  decidedly  unhealthy  looking.  The  workers'  complaints  were  chiefly  the 
heat,  irregularity  of  work,  and  in  some  cases  long  hours,  cold  drafts,  insani- 
tary closets,  closets  reached  .  only  by  passing  through  cold  areaways,  poor 
washing  facilities,  frequency  of  colds,  catarrh,  "grippe,"  sore  throat,  hoarse- 
ness, bronchitis,  asthma,  rheumatism,  tuberculosis  and  pneumonia,  difficulty  in 
getting  life  insurance,  and  the  short  span  of  years  at  the  trade.  The  innocent 
spread  of  venereal  diseases,  particularly  syphilis,  through  the  common  mouth- 
ing of  the  blowpipe  was  illustrated  in  one  place  where  a  physician  cited  a  chancre 
of  the  lip  which  had  been  followed  by  other  cases  of  syphilis.  Heat  prostration 
was  another  occupational  disease  common  in  this  process.  Great  dilatation  of  the 
cheeks  was  occasionally  noted  in  older  glass-blowers,  sometimes  accompanied  by 
salivary  disturbances.  Cataract,  due  to  heat  and  glare,  was  not  a  complaint 
of  the  workeTS  whom  we  consulted  at  the  plants,  but,  as  this  condition  usually 
appears  sometime  after  quitting  the  work  (from  50  years  of  age  upward),  we 
are  not  warranted  in  disclaiming  its  existence.  Physicians  in  glass  works' 
vicinities,  however,  called  our  attention  to  its  existence  among  their  glass- 
working  patients.  Comments.  —  As  may  be  seen  from  the  above,  there  are 
some  plants  doing  glass  blowing  in  which  health-hazards  are  nearly  negligible 


26l 

features.  These  have  resorted  to  many  expediencies  to  bring  this  about,  as, 
for  instance,  air  blasts  to  play  upon  workers  in  hot  locations,  electric  fans 
to  stir  up  the  air  and  cause  evaporation  of  sweat,  movable  heat  shields, 
movable  draft  shielde,  steam  heat  for  winter,  goggles  to  protect  against  the 
heat,  colored  glasses  where  the  light  is  intense,  leather  boots,  asbestos  body  cover- 
ings, asbestos  over  leer-doors  and  screerus,  frequent  cleaning,  good  toilets 
and  washing  facilities.  There  are  also  needed  cuspidors,  the  abolishing  of 
promiscuous  spitting,  shower  baths  for  all  hot  process  workers,  room 
thermometers,  careful  medical  supervision,  especially  to  keep  out  tuberculous 
persons  and  those  suffering  from  venereal  diseases  and  (sickly-inclined  persons. 
The  most  satisfactory  work  shift  would  appear  to  be  that  which  permits  of 
an  8-hour  work  day,  spread  over  12  hours,  as  f ollov^ns :  2  P.  M.  to  6  P.  M. 
and  6  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M.,  or -6  P.  M.  to  10  P.  M.  and  10  A.  M.  to  2  P.  M.,  thus 
avoiding  night  work  entirely.  This  was  claimed  to  be  very  satisfactory  in 
2  large  plants  which  manufactured  chimneys,  globes  and  glassware.  It  may 
not  be  feasible  for  all  places,  in  which  case  the  8-hour  shift  system,  with 
changes  not  less  than  bi-monthly  is  recommended. 

GLASS. BLOWING  BY  MACHINERY. 

Glass  blowing  by  machinery,  so  far  as  we  investigated,  was  found  to  be 
limited  to  the  manufacture  of  glass  bottles,  which  were  blown  or  molded  by 
machinery  using  air  pressure. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  4  plants,  in  which  625  wage-earners  were 
so  engaged,  of  which  42  were  youths  under  20  years  of  age.  The  attitude 
towards  employes  Beemed  good  in  all  places.  The  workers  were  largely  of 
intelligent  type  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  non-English  speaking 
foreigners  in  the  remaining  1.  Retention  seemed  good  in  1  place  and  bad 
in  the  remaining  3.  Health  appliances  were  fair  in  3  places  and  practically 
absent  in  the  fourth  place,  where  a  large  number  were  employed.  The  workers 
were  l^irgely  unskilled.  Of  the  total  workers,  about  400  were  between  20 
and  40  years  of  age,  about  80  between  40  and  5-j,  and  the  balance  youths.  The 
workplace  was  hygienically  constructed  in  2  plants  and  not  so  in  the  other  2. 
In  2  plants  hand  blowing  was  done  in  the  same  quarters. 

Dust  was  a  negligible  factor,  but  pulverized  glass  and  waste  accumulations 
upon  the  floons  were  bad  in  2  places.  Dampness  was  no  factor.  Two  places 
were  well  lighted  and  in  2  the  quarters  were  only  fairly  so.  General  room 
ventilation  was  good  in  3  places  and  only  fair  in  the  other,  due  to  the  presence 
of  escaping  fumes  and  to  crowded  conditions.  A  number  of  the  workers  in 
all  places  were  exposed  to  dangerously  high  temperature.  One  place  had  a 
part  of  its  work,  however,  so  provided  for  that  heat  was  only  a  fair  hazard. 
Cold  drafts,  absence  of  heating  systems  and  toilets  which  were  practically 
outdoors,  and  exposed,  were  bad  features  in  1  place  and  fairly  so  in  1  other. 
The  influence  of  fatigue  was  bad  in  2  places,  and  a  fair  hazard  in  the  2 
remaining,  due  to  hurrying  piece-work,  speeding  up,  monotony,  constant  stand- 
ing by  many  and  constrained  postures.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  1  place, 
9  in  another,  and  12  hours  in  the  2  remaining.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour 
in  2  places,  5^  hour  in  1  place,  and  not  allowed  in  the  last,  where,  however, 
frequent  rest  intervals  during  the  12-hour  day  existed.  The  liability  to  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases  was  bad  in  3  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  other. 


262 

due  to  such  factors  as  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  improper 
wash  places  and  closets,  crowding  of  workers  together,  the  frequency  of  trivial 
injuries  and  lack  of  medical  supervision,  and  health  certificates,  particularly  in 
the  case  of  youths.  Poisoning  appeared  no  hazard.  The  inducement  to  indus- 
trial alcoholism  was  bad  in  1  place,  fair  in  2  others,  and  quite  negligible  in  the 
remaining  1,  due  to  inadequate  drinking  watei;  facilities  and  the  depressing 
influences  of  the  hazards  above  mentioned. 

Some  unhealthy  looking  workers  were  observed  in  all  places.  The  chief 
complaints  were  heat,  drafts,  and  in  2  places  long  hours.  Heat  prostrations 
were  reported,  and  in  1  plant  a  case  of  sudden  death  while  at  work,  pre- 
sumably due  to  heat  exhaustion.     Comments.  —  See  glass  blowing  by  hand. 

GLASS.  PRESSING  AND  ROLLING. 

In  the  case  of  pressing,  as  in  the  making  of  table  glassware,  the  glass 
is  removed  from  the  furnace  by  means  of  a  rod,  placed  in  a  machine  mold 
.and  pressed  into  the  desired  shape  mechanically.  In  1  place  glass  was  rolled 
into  thin  sheets  with  a  hand-operated  roller,  the  process  being  fairly  free  of 
health-hazards. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  7  plants,  and  was  practically  identical 
in  all.  It  was  done  in  the  same  quarters  with  hand  blowing  in  all  but  one 
place.  Health  appliances  and  construction  of  building  were  practically  the 
same  as  in  hand  blowing. 

All  hazards  were  less  than  in  the  other  hot  procesises,  although  here  and 
there  dirty  quarters,  poor  light,  inefficient  heating  systems,  exposure  to  undue 
heat  and  to  drafts,  and  possibility  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  were 
noted.  Fatigue  was  not  apparently  a  hazard  of  moment,  except  in  the  case 
of  youths. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  3  places,  while  a  number 
were  in  need  of  a  health  examination  in  the  remaining  4.  Complaints  by 
workmen  upon  the  nature  of  the  work  were  infrequent.  Comm-ents.  —  See 
glass  blowing  by  hand,  although  certain  modifications  are  permissible  for  this 
less  hazardous  process. 

GLASS. FINISHING. 

Under  this  head  are  included  a  variety  of  processes  usually  performed 
after  the  glass  has  come  from  the  blowing  room  and  annealing  ovens.  The 
various  procedures  include  grinding  (wet  or  dry),  sanding,  polishing,  buffing, 
filing,  drilling,  beveling,  cutting,  and  occasionally  some  hot  cutting  and  heating 
for  purposes  of  smoothing  the  edges. 

These  finishing  processes  were  investigated  in  23  establishments  in  all 
lines  of  the  glass  industry,  and  found  to  engage  a  total  of  808  wage-earner.y, 
of  whom  572  were  males  and  286  females.  In  2  places  very  crude  methods 
were  Ufsed,  in  4  places  not  much  better,  while  in  the  remaining  17,  methods 
were  apparently  modern.  In  6  places  unions  existed.  Attitude  towards  workers 
appeared  good  in  18  places,  fair  in  2,  and  poor  in  3.  The  mass  of  workers 
were  of  an  intelligent  type  in  19  places,  fairly  so  in  3,  and  not  so  in  1  large 
place.  Retention  was  good  in  18  places,  fairly  so  in  3,  and  not  BO  in  2,  in- 
cluding 1  large  place.  Health  appliances,  especially  those  consisting  of  hoods 
to  remove  dry  dusts  from  grinding  processes,  were  good  in  2  of  the  8  places 
where  such  was   done.     In  none  of  these  28  places   did   sick  or  death  benefit 


263 

organizations  exist  for  this  class  of  workers.  The  workers  were  very  largely 
unskilled  labor.  There  was  a  total  of  45  persons  over  40  years  of  age,  727 
between  20  and  40,  and  86  under  20,  of  which  last  number  the  majority  were 
girls.  Work  room  construction  was  hygienically  good  in  13  places,  fair  in  1 
and  bad  in  9.  Other  processes  than  those  mentioned  were  done  in  some 
places,  such  as  electro-plating,  packing,  painting,  soldering,  etc. 

Dust  was  no  factor  in  16  places,  was  a  fair  hazard  in  4  placets  and  bad  in 
the  remaining  3,  due  to  dry  grinding  and  finishing  without  local  exhaust 
systems  and  to  powders  used   for  polishing.     Quarters  were  clean  in  7  places, 


Fig.  85.     Glass  Grinding  Room. 

Revolving  machines    (on  right)    are  grinding  down  uneven  edges  on  glass 

tumblers  which  the  girls  manipulate. 


fairly  so  in  13  and  not  iso  in  3.  Dampness,  due,  principally,  to  carelessness  in 
wet  grinding,  was  a  bad  hazard  in  3  places,  fairly  so  in  12  others  and  no  factor 
in  the  remaining  8.  Quarters  were  well  lighted  in  all  except  3  places.  General 
room  ventilation  was  bad  in  1  place,  fair  in  7  and  good  in  the  remaining  15. 
Heat  was  no  factor  in  19  places,  was  a  fair  hazard  in  3  and  bad  in  1.  Cold 
and  drafts,  due  to  inefficient  heat  for  the  winter  season,  were  features  in  a 
number  of  places.  Fatigue  was  a  negligible  factor  in  10  places,  fairly  so  in 
6  places,  but  considerable  in  the  remaining  7,  due  to  hurrying  piece-work, 
monotony,  constant  standing,  speeding  up,  stools  without  backs,  faulty  postures, 
and  in  some  cases  eye-strain.  The  work  day  was  8J  to  9  houns  in  14  places, 
9  to  10  hours  in  8  places  and  12  hours  in  the  remaining  1.     The  noon  recess 


264 

was  1  hour  in  10  places,  ^  hour  in  12  and  absent  in  1  (where,  however,  rest 
intervals  were  frequent).  The  possibility  of  contracting  communicable  diseases 
was  negligible  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  12  others  and  great  in  the  remaining  9, 
due  to  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  inadequate  washing  facilities 
and  poor  toilets,  common  cups,  frequent  trivial  injuries,  common  handling  of 
objects,  and  the  absence  of  medical  supervision.  Poisons  were  no  hazard  in 
17  places,  fairly  so  in  1  place  and  apparently  bad  in  5,  due  to  the  use  of 
powders  containing  lead  in  polishing,  and  acids  such  as  HF,  H2SO4  and  HCl, 
used  for  cleaning,  etching  and  soldering.  The  inducement  to  industrial  stimu- 
lantism  was   present   in   20   places,    due   to    various    factors    in    different   places. 


Fig.  86.     Glass   Factory  — Finishing  and   Selecting. 

In    rear   are  melting  machines  used   to   melt   and   smooth   edges   on   glassware. 

Girls  in  foreground  are  doing  the  final  sorting  and  selecting. 


isuch  as  inadequate  drinking  water  facilities,  and  the  subjection  to  the  depressing 
influences  above  mentioned. 

While  in  this  large  number  of  workers  a  few  of  unhealthy  appearance 
were  found  in  most  places,  still  this  was  especially  so  in  6.  The  general  com- 
plaints of  the  workers  were  breathing  of  acid  fumes  and  dust  (where  not 
confined),  many,  especially  girlis,  complained  of  cold  damp  rooms  in  winter 
time,  and  in  1  place  the  foreman  admitted  great  danger  of  lead  poisoning, 
1  case  of  which  our  investigators  found  at  work,  as  well  as  a  case  of  rhinitis 
and  conjunctivitis  from  acid  fumes. 

Comments.  —  The  hazards  mentioned  above  suggest  the  remedies  needed. 
Fortunately  a  very  few  persons  were  found  to  be  handling  poisons. 


26s 


GLASS. ETCHING. 

This  process  usually  consists  in  the  uise  of  HFl  acid  by  methods  well 
known,  and  was  investigated  in  4  places  employing  a  total  of  IQ  workers,  of 
whom  9  were  males  and  1  female.  It  was  usually  done  in  a  place  by  itself, 
and,  out/side  of  general  conditions  which  were  the  same  as  those  described 
under  glass  finishing  processes,  the  chief  hazard  was  the  use  of  the  acid  in 
question,  which  was  generally  mixed,  also,  with  other  inorganic  and  even 
organic  acids  such  as  acetic  and  carbolic.  In  2  places  the  workers  complained 
of  fumes,  of  headache,  nausea,  coughing,  and,  in  one  place,  of  burns,  due  to 
the  use  of  the  acid.  Excruciating  pain  was  the  complaint  in  1  case  seen,  in 
which  the  acid  had  caused  no  more  than  a  little  redness  and  superficial  lacera- 
tion on  the  fingers.  As  well  known,  this  characterizes  hydroflouric  acid  burns. 
Special  rubber  gloves  should  be  provided  for  such  workers,  and  exhaust  systems 
locally  applied  to  remove  fumes.  This  was  well  carried  out  in  2  places.  Sand- 
blasting has  supplanted  much  acid  etching. 

The  etching  effect  is  also  produced  upon  glas/sware  by  a  totally  different 
process  from  that  described  above,  in  which  the  design  is  stamped  on  the  glass 
with  a  paste,  and  zinc  oxide  is  then  dusted  on.  This  is  usually  not  done  under 
a  hood,  resulting  in  some  complaints  of  coughing.  The  glass  is  then  heated 
and  the  finished  product  looks  as  though  it  were  etched.  There  are  no  other 
health-hazards  connected  with  the  process  as  far  as  could  be  determined. 

ART  GLASS  PROCESSES. 

Aside  from  the  glass  processes  designated  previously,  there  are  some 
features  such  as  painting,  decorating  and  spraying  of  glajss,  assembling  it  into 
metal  frames,  lacquering,  shellacing,  varnishing,  etc.,  which  employ  a  fairly 
large  number  of  workers,  mostly  females,  in  which  the  chief  hazards  are  the 
fumes  of  turpentine,  amyl  acetate,  wood  alcohol  and  benzine,  also  a  risk  of 
lead  poisoning  (principally  in  the  soldering  together  and  handling  of  lead 
composition  frames).  The  chief  complaints  _oi  workers  in  2  establishments 
employing  a  total  of  90  workers  so  engaged  (75  of  whom  were  females)  were 
dizziness,  headache,  coughing,  nausea  and  indigestion. 

Comments.  —  Greater  confinement  or  local  removal  of  fumes  and  vapors, 
the  use  of  finger  cots  and  gloves,  exhaust  hoods  over  spraying  apparatus,  and, 
especially,  medical  supervision  of  the  workers  are  essential. 

STONE  SURFACING. 

This  process,  which  includes  chipping,  rough  surfacing,  lettering,  design- 
ing, scouring  and  polishing  of  marble  and  stone  surfaces,  was  investigated  in 
a  total  of  17  plants,  in  6  cities,  employing  298  wage-earners,  all  males.  Marble 
and  monument  works,  as  well  as  the  small  amount  of  stone  surfacing  in  con- 
nection  with   quarries,    are    included. 

Unions  were  found  to  exist  in  5  of  the  plants  seen.  The  general  atti- 
tude of  employers  toward  the  welfare  of  the  help  seemed  very  good  in  14 
places,  but  more  or  less  indifferent  in  the  3  remaining,  where  some  35  persons 
were  employed.  A  iskilled  and  intelligent  type  of  help  was  largely  employed  in 
8  places,  fairly  so  in  8  more,  and  not  so  in  1  plant  employing  25.  Retention 
at  work  appeared  to  be  good  in  15  places,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  In  3 
places  health  appliances,  consisting  of  exhaust  systems  locally  applied  for  dust, 


266 

and  heating  arrangements  were  found  good,  in  the  remaining  14  places  they 
were  absent,  or  very  inefficient.  In  no  places  were  any  attempts  made  to 
instruct  workers  in  matters  of  health  conservation,  nor  were  there  sick  benefit 
organizations  at  any  establishment.  The  general  construction  of  work  quar- 
ters was  conisidered  hygienically  good  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  5  more,  and 
not  so  in  the  remaining  8.  Many  of  them  were  simply  sheds.  Other  processes 
were  not  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  as  a  constant  procedure.  The  age- 
group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  oU  years  years,  0 ;  45  to  50  years, 
27 ;  40  to  45  years,  52 ;  20  to  40  years,  209 ;  and  under  20  years,  4. 

Stone  and  marble  dust  contaminated  the  breathing  atmosphere  enough 
to  be  a  bad  hazard  in  15  places  and  fairly  so  in  the  remaining  2.  The  air 
blast  from  compressed  air  cutters  blew  the  dust  away  from  workers  to  a  large 
extent,  but  as  most  of  them  worked  with  faces  within  4  to  6  inches  of  tool, 
they  breathed  lots  of  dust.  Only  a  few  wore  respirators.  Where  wet  methods 
were  used  (which  was  rare)  the  drying  up  of  the  drippings  under  foot,  which 
were  allowed  to  accumulate,  was  also  a  source  of  dust.  In  most  places  the 
ground  wajs  the  floor.  In  some  of  these  steam  pipes  were  buried  in  the  earth 
for  winter  heat.  Quarters  were  kept  fairly  clean  and  orderly  in  5  places,  but 
little  attention  was  given  to  this  in  the  remaining  12.  Dampness  from  polish- 
ing and  planing  processes  (usually  machine  work)  done  in  the  wet,  was  a 
bad  hazard  in  5  places  and  fairly  so  in  2  more.  Work  quarters  should  have 
been  better  lighted  in  8  places.  In  many  places  no  artificial  light  was  at  hand, 
which  was  particularly  bad  for  designers  on  dark  days.  In  12  places  workers 
in  the  cold  season  of  the  year  had  very  little  protection  from  chill.  In  this 
respect,  however,  the  work  fell  off  considerably  in  the  winter  season.  Many 
places  depended  upon  coke  stoves  for  heating.  Fatigue  was  some  hazard  in 
all  places,  and  particularly  so  in  5,  due  to  monotonous  application  at  piece- 
work, with  constant  standing  in  awkward  positions,  while  laborious  work, 
jarring  processes  (pneumatic  tools),  constant  pressure  against  the  person  and 
loud  noises  were  other  features.  The  workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in 
8  places,  8-f-  to  9  hours  in  3  places,  and  9-f  to  10  hours  in  the  remaining  6.  The 
noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  9  places,  Ya  hour  in  3  places,  and  ^  hour  in  the 
remaining  5.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  hazard 
in  all  places,  and  particularly  so  in  12,  due  to  the  constant  presence  of  dust  as 
a  medium  of  carrying  infection,  as  well  as  promiscuous  spitting  into  the  dust 
and  dirt,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  absence  or  great  inefficiency  of  wash- 
ing facilities  and  closets,  common  drinking  cups,  frequent  trivial  injuries,  flying 
particles,  and  the  absence  of  any  medical  supervision.  First-aid  equipment, 
gloves,  goggles,  thumb  "jibs,"  finger  cots,  etc.,  were  usually  lacking,  or  little 
used.  The  workers  were  also  subject  to  callouses  which  became  easily  in- 
fected with  consequent  danger  of  blood  poisoning.  The  hazard  of  poisoning 
was  rare,  although  ^scouring  with  wet  pumice,  oxalic  acid,  tin  oxide  (perhaps 
containing  lead)  was  found  to  be  in  vogue  in  some  places.  There  was  danger 
of  the  paste  drying  up  and  being  inhaled;  also  of  affecting  the  skin.  In  1 
place  the  fumes  from  a  gas  engine  fouled  the  atmosphere.  The  industrial 
inducement  to  alcoholism  was  in'  direct  proportion  to  the  irritating  effects  of 
dust,  fatigue,  dampness  and  cold  surroundings. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  averaged  good  in  about  half  of  the 
places.  The  chief  complaints  were  the  breathing  of  dust  (worse  in  winter), 
catarrh,    colds,    sore   handis,   fissures   in    the   crevices    of    fingers,    the    irritating 


267 

effects  of  oxalic  acid  on  the  throat  and  skin,  and  damp  work  quarters.  Our 
investigators  reported  numerous  cases  of  eye  injuries,  conjunctivitis,  bronchitis, 
sore  throat,  dermatitis,  and  some  tuberculosis  cases.  Comments.  —  The  follovir- 
ing  is  taken  from  the  Bulletin  of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health,  January, 
1914,  p.  99: 

"A  man  doing  ordinary  work  breathes  21  cubic  feet  of  air  per  hour. 
If  this  air  is  saturated  with  dust,  gases  or  poisons,  he  also  breathes 
them.  In  our  modern  methods  of  drilling  rock,  slate-mining,  quarring 
and  stone-cutting,  men  breathe  no  end  of  pernicious  dust.  The  English 
found  that  rock  drillers,  who  have  no  protection,  average  eight  to  ten 
years  at  the  trade,  and  their  average  age  at  death  is  thirty-five  years.  The 
harder  the  rock  the  more  the  danger.  Those  who  work  piece-work  suc- 
cumb the  soonest.  Death  is  principally  due  to  pneumonia  and  consump- 
tion. One-fourth  of  the  weight  of  the  lungs  of  a  rock  driller  at  death 
has  been  found  to  be  due  to  silicia,  that  is,  inhaled  rock  dust. 

''Employers  should  co-operate  in  lessening  the  incidence  of  these 
diseases  among  this  class  of  workers  by  (1)  employing  men  of  sound 
constitution,  and  particularly  should  attention  be  given  to  this  point  in 
case  of  youths,  (2)  inform  the  men  of  the  dangerous  character  of  this 
work,  (3)  arrange  for  periodic  medical  examinations,  (4)  all  machine- 
planing,  as  well  as  sawing,  should  be  done  in  the  wet  (perhaps  using 
mineral  oil),  (5)  stone-mason's  sheds  should  be  cleaned  out  and  made 
free  from  dust  each  day,  (6)  openings  to  the  shed  should  be  at  the 
floor  or  not  higher  than  three  feet  from  the  floor,  so  that  the  dust, 
which  is  rather  heavy,  will  not  rise  to  the  breathing  level  when  it  is 
blown  out,  and  (7)  where  mechanical  power  is  used,  fans  should  be 
installed  and  air  delivered  above  the  heads  of  the  men  so  that  the  dust 
is  blown  downward,  while  locally  applied  exhaust  systems  can  be  used 
in  -several  processes  of  the  work.  The  employe  should  breathe  only 
through  his  nose,  and,  when  inhalation  of  dust  is  unavoidable,  should 
wear  a  wet  sponge  or  other  form  of  respirator.  All  the  schools  in  a 
stone  area  should  give  special  lessons  on  the  danger  of  dust,  upon  proper 
methods  of  breathing,  while  medical  school  :supervision  would  find  the 
cases  of  obstructed  nasal  breathing  during  youth." 

STONE  SAWING.  —  This  was  a  mechanical  procedure  wherever  it  was 
done  on  a  large  scale,  and  was  usually  done  in  the  wet.  The  chief  hazards  were  ^ 
standing  in  wet  istone-dust  and  water  and  the  weather  exposure.  Fatigue  was  ( 
not  much  of  a  feature,  although  hours  were  longer  than  at  Stone  Surfacing 
in  some  places.  The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  was  fair  to  good.  In 
some  instances  the  workers  were  close  to  the  saw  and  inhaled  dust,  which 
escaped  the  moistening  process. 

STONE  CURBING. —  The  stone  planers  created  abundant  dust. 

STONE  CUTTING.  CRUSHING  AND  GRINDING.  — These  processes 
were  done  in  more  or  less  open  sheds  or  buildings,  usually  upon  the  edge  of  the 
quarry.  Inordinate  exposure  to  stone  dust  was  the  principal  hazard.  Hand  cut- 
ting was  both  dusty  and  dangerous,  while  cutting  machines  did  not  appear  to 
create  much  dust.  Crushers  and  grinders  were  bad.  It  is  difficult  to  cir- 
cumvent  this,    particularly   during   filling   and    dumping  of   crushers,  bins,   etc., 


268 

except  by  wearing  respirators.  No  workers  predisposed  to  tuberculosis  should 
be  so  employed.  Medical  ^supervision  would  keep  many  who  are  predisposed 
to  lung  diseases  out  of  the  industry.  In  1  place,  employing  only  5  persons, 
our  investigators  were  certain  that  2  of  them  were  suffering  from  consumption. 
Many  workers  were  reluctant  to  wear  respirators.  Again  othens  protected 
themselves  quite  well  by  wearing  a  large  sponge  on  the  nose  and  mouth.  An- 
other hazard  was  the  absence  of  proper  sanitary  conveniences  for  this  class 
of  workers,  because  of  which  hookworm  disease  as  well  as  typhoid  fever 
are  greatly  predisposed  to.  (See  special  report  elsewhere  "Industrial  and 
Communal  Typhoid  Fever.") 

GRINDSTONE  MANUFACTURE. 

Grindstones  are  cut  and  trued  from  certain  forms  of  natural  stone,  the 
abrasive  qualities  of  which  are  suited  to  the  purpose.  The  making  of  grind- 
stones is  a  feature  of  stonework  in  certain  quarry  districts  in  the  state.  The 
only  reason  that  we  mention  it  separately  from  the  Marble  and  Stone  In- 
dustry is  because  it  is  an  industry  more  or  less  peculiar  to  the  state.  As  noted 
in  connection  with  4  establishments,  the  following  features  obtained.  A  rela- 
tively small  number  of  men  were  engaged  entirely  in  the  grindstone  work. 
Modern  labor  saving  methods  were  in  use.  They  were  no  unions.  The  general 
attitude  towards  workers,  the  type  of  workers,  and  their  steadiness  at  the 
trade  was  fair  to  good.  The  work  required  no  particular  skill.  In  2  places 
blower  systems  existed  for  removing  dust  at  its  point  of  origin,  but  a  large 
part  of  the  work  was  done  under  water-grinding,  and  practically  in  the  open 
air,  or  under  loosely  constructed  sheds.  In  all  places,  however,  stonedust  wa;s  _ 
a  fair  to  bad  hazard  as  a  contaminator  of  the  atmosphere,  at  times,  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  workers.  Air  conditions  were  about  the  same  as  thoise  of  the 
weather.     Some  piece-work  was   done. 

Comments.  —  As  stonedust  is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  dusts  which  we 
have,  because  of  its  hardness  and  sharp-angled  character,  every  effort  should 
be  made  to  prevent  workers  from  breathing  it,  including  the  wearing  of 
respirators,  if  other  means  will  not  suffice.  Persons  with  a  tendency  to  lung 
trouble  should  keep  out  of  the  industry,  both  because  of  the  dust,  and  the 
weather  exposure.     (See  also  Stone  Surfacing.) 

EMERY  WHEELS. 

The  making  of  emery  wheels  was  investigated  in  2  establishments,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  112  persons,  all  males.  The  various  processes  were  Emery 
Mixing,  Emery  Wheel  Truing,  Furnacing  (Kilning),  and  Babbitting.  The 
last  2  processes  were  practically  the  same  as  conrsidered  under  these  headings 
elsewhere. 

Emery  Mixing.  —  This  process  was  found  to  be  very  dusty,  and  the  dust 
composed  of  the  most  harmful  ingredients  known,  although  they  were  not 
poisonous.  The  harmfulness  consisted  in  the  hardness,  crystalline  character, 
exceeding  fineness  and  consequent  contamination  of  the  atmosphere.  While 
there  were  'hoods  for  controlling  some  of  the  dust,  they  were  generally  very 
inefficient.  The  principal  components  of  emery  wheels  are  corundum  (AUOs) 
and  carborundum  (SiC),  clays  and  shellac,  Avhich  are  selected'  because  of 
their    abrasive   qualities    which    depend    upon    their    almost    diamond    hardness. 


269 

A  very  adhesive  cement  is  used  to  hold  the  particles  of  emery  together,  as  the 
wheels  are  molded.  In  the  places  investigated  a  great  mount  of  dust  was  also 
"kicked  up"  from  the  floor  underfoot.  The  workers  were  engaged  at  piece- 
work. There  were  no  cuspidons.  Washing  and  other  sanitary  facilities  were 
very  inadequate,  although  time  was  allowed  for  washing  in  one  place.  The 
workers  made  no  complaints,  but  a  number  of  them  appeared  very  much  under 
par  in  health. 

Emery  Wheel  Truing.  —  After  the  wheels  have  been  made  and  baked 
they  are  trued  by  grinding  processes  — -  another  exceedingly  dusty  procedure. 
Protection  from  the  dust  was  not  efficient  in  either  place,  while  it  was  also 
kicked  up  from  the  floors.  In  addition,  the  workers  were  exposed  to  the  fumes 
from  the  lead  babbitting  bath  in  the  same  quarters  in  1  place,  where  the  in- 
vestigator found  2  cases  of  undoubted  lead  poisoning.  The  babbitt  metal  was 
used  for  bearings  for  fitting  the  wheels  to  spindles  or  shafts.  Complaints 
were  also  made  of  abdominal  pains,  constipation  and  digestive  disturbances, 
as  well  as  the  effects  of  the  dust  upon  the  lungs.  Comments.  —  A  more  efificieiit 
exhaust  system  would  take  care  of  practically  all  of  the  dust.  In  addition, 
general  cleanliness  of  quarters,  better  washing  facilities  and  precautions  against 
lead  poisoning  would  render  the  industry  comparatively  safe.  The  Kilning 
had  practically  no  hazards  to  health,  being  a  very  simple  procedure  without 
undue  heat,  although  smoky. 

PORCELAIN  ENAMELING  OF  IRON  WARE. 

This  process  consists  in  mixing  dry  ingredients  and  making  up  a  lead-fritted 
glaze,  then  painting  or  "slushing"  it  on  iron  ware  (bath  tubs,  sinks,  utensils^ 
previously  roughened  by  sandblasting.  The  ware  is  then  furnaced  until  red 
hot,  then  sprinkled  or  sprayed  over  with  a  richer  lead  glaze  in  the  form  of  a 
powder.     This  furnacing  and  resprinkling  is  repeated  several  times,  as  a  rule. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  5  establishmeWs,  in  3  cities,  where,  a 
total  of  504  workers,  all  males,  were  found  to  be  so  employed. 

There  were  no  unions.  The  general  attitude  toward  employes  appeared 
good  in  3  places,  fair  in  another,  and  quite  indifferent  in  the  remaining  1.  The 
general  type  of  workers  (the  majority  skilled)  was  good  in  all  places.  The 
retention  at  work  was  good  in  3  places,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  2.  Health 
appliances  were  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  another,  and  absent  in  the  remaining  3. 
Instructions,  especially  concerning  lead  poisoning  were  well  given  in  1  plant, 
but  practically  no  attention  paid  to  this  in  the  other  4.  Benefit  organizations 
existed  in  2  of  the  5  plants.  Work  quarters  were  hygienically  bliilt  in  all 
places  and  the  separation  of  sub-processes  was  also  fairly  well  carried  out. 
In  only  2  plants  were  workers  (1  or  2)  noted  who  were  over  40  years  of  age. 
Some  youths  under  20  were,  however,  present. 

In  2  plants  the  dust  was  well  enough  controlled,  either  by  means  of  hoods 
and  exhausts  (particularly  the  mixing  and  grinding  processes),  and  by  the 
wearing  of  respirators,  to  minimize  hazards,  but  in  the  remaining  3,  particu- 
larly in  the  sprinkling  on  of  the  enamel,  it  was  bad.  The  content  in  all  places 
was  rich  enough  in  lead  to  cause  poisoning,  although  the  solubility  of  the  lead 
was  reduced  by  its  being  added  before  the  glaze  was  fritted.  Quarters, 
especially  the  floors,  were  kept  well  cleaned  in  2  places,  and  not  so  in  the 
remaining  3,     General   room  ventilation  was  good   in  3,  and    fair  in   the  other 


2/0 

2  places.  Protection  against  heat  was  fairly  good  in  2  places,  but  not  so  in 
the  remaining  3,  where  workers  seemed  compelled  to  "grin  and  bear  it."  Though 
the  exposures  were  not  long  at  any  time,  they  were  frequently  alternated  by 
going  out  into  the  cold.  Except  upon  heavy  ware  the  work  was  not  unduly 
faPigiiing.  The  workday  was  in  6-hour  shifts  in  1  place,  8  hours  in  2  others, 
9  hours  in  1,  and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  1.  The  shorter  workday  prevailed 
in  all  places  where  the  work  was  laborious.  The  liability  to  contracting  com- 
municable diseases  was  considerable  in  at  least  2  places,  due  to  promiscuous 
spitting  into  the  dust,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  very  meager  washing 
facilities,  poor  toilets,  and  common  drinking  cups  or  jugs.  The  risk  of  poison- 
ing concerned  lead  entirely.  Practically  all  through  the  process  the  workers 
were  in  danger  of  lead  poisoning,  from  the  opening  of  the  barrels  containing 
lead  oxides,  through  its  mixing,  fritting,  grinding  into  powder,  to  its  applica- 
tion to  the  ware.  Hanging  clothes  in  the  workroom,  eating  in  the  workrooms, 
and  poor  washing  facilities  were  other  important  factors.  The  industrial  in- 
ducement to  alcoholism  was  in  proportion  to  the  poison  factor  largely,  to  which 
were  added  the  other  influences  of  dust,  heat  and  fatigue. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  averaged  good  in  2  places,  fair  in 
2  others,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  1.  They  made  few  complaints  and  were 
inclined  to  accept  poisoning  as  a  necessary  risk.  A  very  few  were  at  all  posted 
in  the  personal  hygiene  of  preventing  poisoning.  Our  investigators  found 
8  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  with  evidence  which  pointed  to  a  fatality  in  1  in- 
stance due  to  lead  poisoning.  This  was  in  a  young  worker  who  had  been 
employed  but  a  short  time.  Comments.  —  Definite  instructions  to  workmen 
upon  the  prevention  of  lead  poisoning,  hoods  and  exhausts  in  mixing  and 
'grinding  processes,  wet  cleaning  of  quarters  often,  the  wearing  of  respirators 
while  sifting  on  enamel,  face  shields  with  goggles,  frequent  rest  intervals, 
medical  supervision  (consisting  at  least  in  a  monthly  five-minute  examination 
for  signs  of  lead  poisoning,  and  the  alternation  of  work  where  symptoms 
occur),  and  keeping  boys  out  of  the  enameling  furnace  quarters,  are  the  sug- 
gestions made.  Furthermore,  for  all  hot  process  workers  shower  baths  should 
be  provided  and  workers  educated   (if  necessary)  to  their  correct  use. 

MIRROR  MAKING. 

The  process  of  making  mirrors  is  very  limited  in  Ohio.  Our  investi- 
gators reported  upon  5  firms,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total  of  89  workers,  all 
males.  The  work  was  semi-skilled,  and  the  making  of  mirrors  was-  the  only 
process  done  at  the  places.  The  hazard,  poisoning,  was  found  to  be  a  small 
factor,  since  in  all  places  the  work  was  done  with  silver  nitrate  and  tartaric 
acid,  mercury  not  being  used.  General  sanitation  and  other  hygienic  features 
were  below  standards  in  all  places,  especially  the  general  room  ventilation  and 
the  methods  of  taking  care  of  the  fumes  which  were  created.  One  workman 
complained  of  the  nitric  acid  fumes  from  which  he  was  not  protected.  In 
the  silvering  rooms  the  temperature  was  upwards  of  80°  with  rapid  changes 
by  workers  to  cooler  rooms.  The  grinding,  bevelling,  polishing  and  bufKng, 
were  done  in  the  wet  with  a  "rouge"  paste,  and  in  some  places  the  quarters 
were  very  damp. 

SOAP  MANUFACTURE  AND  BY-PRODUCTS. 

Soap  manufacture  and  its  by-products,  consisting  of  special  cleaning  com- 
pounds, glycerine,  candles,  and  in  one  or  two  instances,  perfumes  and  talcum 


271 

powder  manufacture,  were  investigated  in  11  plants,  located  in  3  cities,  and 
employing  a  total  of  1,053  wage-earners  at  these  processes,  697  males  and  356 
females.  Usually  soap  works  were  independent  industries,  but  some  were 
connected  with  fertilizer  and  packing  establishments. 

This  was  an  industry  employing  advanced  methods  in  all  except  2  small 
plants.  There  were  no  unions.  The  attitude  toward  employes  seemed  good 
in  all  places.  A  good  class  of  workers  was  employed  in  all  except  2  small 
places.  The  workers  appeared  to  remain  well  at  the  work.  Health  appliances 
were  present  and  very  good  in  half  of  the  places,  and  consisted  of  hoods 
over  vats,  tanks  and  dusty  processes,  as  well  as  the  use,  to  some  extent,  of 
respirators.  Organized  health  instructions,  placards,  etc.,  were  features  in  4 
places.  In  2  large  places  sick  benefit  associations  existed.  The  workers  were 
very  largely  unskilled  labor,  although  some  might  be  considered  semi-skilled. 
Work-places  were  hygienically  constructed  in  all  except  3  small  places.  In  the 
smaller  places  various  processes  were  performed  in  the  same  quarters.  Age- 
group  summaries  showed  94  over  40  years  of  age  and  959  under  40,  with  a 
fair  number  under  20,  especially  girls.  / 

In  4  plants  dust,  composed  of  silicates,  alkalies,  and  soap  was  negligible  as 
a  health-hazard,  and  fairly  so  in  4  others,  but  in  3  places  employing  a  total 
of  60  persons,  dust  was  very  bad.  Quarters  were  kept  dean  and  orderly  in 
6  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  3,  the  latter  all 
small  places.  Dampness  was  no  hazard  in  7  places,  was  some  feature  in  3 
places,  and  bad  in  1  place  employing  3  persons.  Quarters  were  well  lighted 
in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  2  more,  and  not  so  in  1  small  place.  General  room 
ventilation  was  good  in  3  places,  fair  in  4  others,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  4, 
due  to  closeness  and  confinement,  as  well  as  to  fumes,  alkali  vapors,  essences, 
etc.  Heat  was  not  much  of  a  hazard  in  any  place.  Fatigue  was  a  fair  hazard 
in  practically  all  establishments,  due  to  various  factors  which  may  be  given 
in  descending  order  thus :  constant  standing,  monotony,  piece-work,  speeding 
up,  strain,  chairs  without  backs,  jarring  processes,  and  work  requiring  pressure 
against  the  body.  The  workday  was  from  9  to  10  hours  in  all  places ;  the 
noon  recess  was  %  hour  in  3  places,  and  J^  hour  in  the  remaining  8.  Over- 
time was  seldom  done.  The  liability  to  contracting  conumunicable  diseases  was 
negligible  in  2  of  the  larger  places,  fairly  so  in  4  other  places,  but  was  a  bad 
hazard  in  5  establishments,  due  chiefly  to  the  use  of  common  towels  and  drink- 
ing cups,  inadequate  washing  facilities  and  poor  closets,  promiscuous  spitting, 
the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  for  some  workers,  the  handling  of  infectious 
materials  (carcasses,  hides,  etc.).  Medical  supervision  of  employes  obtained 
in  2  large  plants.  The  exposure  to  poisoning  was  a  bad  feature  in  2  small 
places,  and  fairly  so  in  4  other  places,  due  to  alkali  (NaOH  and  KOH)  vapors 
and  dust,  fatty  acids,  and  perfume  essences.  Exceedingly  nauseating  vapors 
were  also  encountered.  The  poison  hazard  could  have  been  overcome  by 
mechanical  means  and  also  good  washing  facilities.  The  industrial  inducement 
to  stimulantism  was  some  factor  in  6  smaller  plants  and  especially  in  those 
where  the  breathing  of  irritating  dusts  of  alkaline  character  was  a  feature. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  in  the  soap  manufacturing  industry 
was  good,  with  the  possible  exception  of  3  small  places,  where  complaints  were 
made  of  nausea  and  loss  of  appetite,  the  irritating  alkaline  fumes,  stearic  acid 
vapors,  and  soap-dust  upon  the  lining  of  the  nose  and  throat,  upon  digestion, 
and  upon  the  skin  and  scalp.     New  hands  appeared  to  complain  of  nasal  dis- 


272 

charges,  sore  eyes  and  coughing,  in  quarters  were  perfumed  soaps  were  made. 
Soap  powders  were  more  irritating  in  warm  weather  and  especially  to  persons 
with  hay  fever  tendencies.  Comments.  —  Soap  workers  in  dusty  processes 
should  wear  caps  to  protect  the  scalp  from  "salt  rheum"  or  chronic  eczema. 
The  vast  majority  of  workers  in  this  industry,  however,  were  found  to  be 
engaged  under  the  most  excellent  work  and  social  conditions,  including  air- 
conditioned  work  rooms,  process  ventilation  systems,  recreation  features, 
social  welfare,  profit  sharing,  etc. 

BAKERY  PROCESSES. 

While  various  manipulations  make  up  Baking  Processes  as  carried  on 
in  factories  (no  small  "home  bakeries"  are  included  here),  it  is  considered 
best  to  group  them  all  under  this  head  and  point  out  differences  in  sub- 
processes  as  necessary. 

Baking  was  investigated  in  8  plants,  in  4  cities,  employing  a  total  of  639 
wage-earners,  of  whom  455  were  males  and  184  were  females.  Bread,  crackers, 
pastries  and,  in  one  place,  confections  also  were  the  products  made.  In  all 
plants  most  modern  methods  were  adopted,  with  the  possible  exception  of 
some  of  the  processes  in  2  plants.  There  were  no  union  organizations.  The 
managerial  attitude  toward  the  welfare  of  employes  seemed  very  good  in  5 
places,  fair  in  2  others,  and  rather  indifferent  in  the  remaining  1.  The  types 
of  employes  had  about  the  same  grading.  In  all  except  1  place,  endeavors 
were  made  to  keep  the  same  employes,  and  the  latter  appeared  to  remain 
steadily.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  aid-conditioning  systems  for  certain 
rooms,  fans  and  exhausts  were  good  in  3  places,  but  practically  absent  in  the 
remaining  5.  Organized  instructions  in  the  care  of  personal  health  were  given 
in  1  place,  while  a  sick  benefit  association  existed  in  another.  Work  quarters 
were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  6  places,  and  fairly  so  in  the  remaining 

2,  although  certain  rooms  could  have  been  much  better  built  for  the  purpose. 
There  was  a  general  commingling  of  processes  in  6  places.  Age-group  estima- 
tions summed  up  as  follows :  over  40  years,  106 ;  20  to  40  years,  488 ;  and  under 
20  years,  45.    There  was  a  tendency  to  employ  young  girls. 

In  3  places  workers  were  exposed  to  considerable  dust  in  certain  starchy 
processes.  Cleanliness  and  orderliness,  which  are  prided  features  of  this  type 
of  industry,  were  found  below  expected  standards  in  2  places,  and  especially 
so  in  1.  Certain  dirty  habits,  such  as  the  dripping  perspiration  into  the  dough 
were  observed.  For  a  considerable  number  of  workers  light  was  poor  in  3 
places.  The  general  room  ventilation  for  the  various  processes  was  good 
throughout  in  5  places,  fair  in  another,  but  poor  in  certain  parts  (mixing  and 
baking)  in  the  remaining  2  places.  Heat  about  the  baking  ovens  was  a 
neghgible  hazard  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  3  others,  but  in  the  remaining  3, 
workers  were  subjected  to  an  undue  amount  of  heat,  particularly  since  they 
were  employed  for  long  hours  in  such  quarters.  Quarters  were  insufficiently 
heated'in  parts  of  one  plant.  As  the  work  was  conducted,  fatigue  appeared 
no  factor  in  '2  plants,  and  but  a  fair  hazard  in  3  more,  but  in  the  remaining 

3,  employing  a  total  of  about  110  persons,  several  fatigue  factors  did  obtain — 
chiefly,  constant  standing  by  the  girls  in  wrapping  and  packing,  hurrying  piece- 
work, and  monotonous  application.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  1  place 
(which  also  allowed   }i   hour  recess  each   morning),  9  hours  in  3  places,  and 


273 

10  hours  in  the  remaining  4  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  2  places, 
Yi.  hour  in  3  places  and  "no  regular"  in  the  remaining  3.  Overtime  work  was 
occasionally  necessary  and  in  1  large  place- at  least  no  compensation  was  given 
for  this.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  appeared  no  hazard 
in  3  places,  while  in  the  remaining  5  there  was  some  risk  in  various  parts, 
especially  in  2,  due  to  such  factors  as  the  presence  of  swarms  of  flies,  the 
use  of  common  drinking  cups,  common  towels,  inadequate  washing  facilities 
and  toilet  arrangements,  spitting  upon  floors,  and  the  absence  of  cuspidors. 
Usually,  these  last  two  features  in  particular  were  carefully  supervised.  In 
2  large  places  there  was  a  medical  supervision  of  workers.  The  short-in- 
tervaled  handling  of  bakery  products  by  workers  was  another  feature  which 
especially  necessitated  medical  supervision.  In  no  places  were  workers  found 
exposed  to  poisons,  although  in  some  quarters  ovens  were  not  well  ventilated. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  appeared  some  feature  in  3  places, 
due  chiefly  to  the  absence  of  good  drinking  'water  properly  cooled  and  plenti- 
fully supplied,  and,  for  different  groups  of  workers,  the  depressing  influences 
of  certain  of  the  hazards  above  named. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  averaged  very,  good  in  6  places,  fair 
in  another,  while  in  1  place  (which  was  small)  some  of  the  workers  were 
quite  worn,  fatigued  and  anemic  looking.  Workers  made  few  health  com- 
plaints at  any  place,  although  evidences  of  tuberculous  persons,  engaged  in 
such  baking  establishments,  were  brought  to  our  attention  and  are  reported 
elsewhere.  Comments.  —  The  shortcomings  above  mentioned  in  certain  places 
suggest  their  own  remedies.  Even  though  females  engaged  at  piece-work 
processes  may  prefer  to  stand  most  of  the  time,  they  should  be  given  instruc- 
tion in  how  to  stand  in  order  to  prevent  flat  foot,  other  deformities  and 
internal  derangements,  while  they  should  also  be  supplied  with  chairs  with 
back  rests.  While  starch  and  flour  dust  are  practically  harmless  as  such,  any 
workers  who  are  predisposed  to  consumption  will  likely  have  such  disease 
awakened  from  the  coughing  which  the  dust  incites,  particularly  when  other 
conditions  of  heat  and  work  are  combined.  In  a  number  of  oven  quarters 
ventilating  hoods  could  be  constructed,  which  would  entirely  relieve  the  workers 
of  heat  influences;  or  air  blasts  and  fans  might  answer.  As  for  all  hot-process 
workers,   they   should  be  supplied  with   shower   bath    facilities. 

CONFECTIONERY  PROCESSES. 

The  making  of  candies,  sweetmeats,  nut  preparations,  and  other  con- 
fections was  investigated  in  14  establishments,  in  3  cities,  employing  a  total 
of  1,859  wage-earners,  of  whom  392  were  males,  and  967  were  females. 

Thoroughly  modern  methods  appeared  to  be  adopted  in  11  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  the  3  remaining.  There  were  no  union  organizations.  The  atti- 
tude toward  employes,  the  type  of  employes,  and  the  retention  at  the  work 
appeared  good  in  practically  all  places  (spring  and  summer  being  dull  sea- 
sons). Health  appliances  consisting  of  air-conditioning  apparatus  for  work- 
rooms, fans,  hoods,  vents,  and  exhausts  were  present  and  very  good  in  5 
places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  but  absent  in  the  remaining  7  (all  except  1  of 
which  were  small  places,  where  workers  were  not  continuousjy  applied  at 
the  same  processes).  In  1  place  shower  baths  were  present.  In  4  places 
considerable  attention  was  given  to.  health  instructions,  and  nurses  were 
employed.     As   a  rule,   girls   wore   caps   and   aprons,   the   latter  changed   twice 

18      O.    D. 


274 

a  week;  men  wore  white  overalls  which  they  changed  once  a  week.  Men 
wore  gloves  in  candy  pulling.  In  2  cities,  Board  of  Health  placards,  showing 
city  regulations  for  this  industry  were  found  posted  up  in  workrooms.  Several 
plants  employed  physicians  who  looked  over  employes  at  regular  intervals. 
There  were  no  factory  sick  benefit  organizations  in  any  plants.  The  general 
construction  of  work  quarters  was  good  throughout  in  8  places,   fairly  so  in 

3  others,  while  of  the  remaining  3  this  could  not  be  said  as  respected  certain 
departments.  In  8  of  the  places  various  processes  were  intermingled  in  the 
same  rooms,  including  some  large  establishments.  The  age-group  estimations 
summed  up  as  follows :  over  40  years,  50 ;  under  40  years,  1,309,  of  whom 
probably  15%  were  under  20  years   (chiefly  girls). 

In  9  establishments  dust  was  practically  no  hazard  to  any  of  the  workers, 
but  in  the  remaining  5  (especially  in  2)  workers  upon  gum  drops,  marsh- 
mallows,  and  in  other  starchy  processes  breathed  a  considerable  amount  of 
starch  dust.  Quarters  were  kept  very  clean  in  8  places,  fairly  so  in  5  more, 
and  not  so  in  the  remaining  1,  where  some  70  persons  were  employed.  In 
some  places  candy  drippings  were  caked  upon  the  fioors,  while  dry  sweeping 
during  work  hours  was  occasionally  noted.  In  1  place  starch,  which  escaped, 
was  swept  back  into  the  bins  from  the  floor.  In  3  places  some  workers  were 
considerably  exposed  to  dampness  from  the  steam  and  humidity  from  cooking 
and  dipping  processes.  In  one  cooking  room  the  workers'  feet  were  soaked 
with  water  and  syrup  on  the  floor.  General  lighting  of  quarters  was  also 
below  standard  in  3  places,  due  either  to  location  of  the  building  or  the  large 
size  of  the  workroom  so  that  interior  portions  were  darkened.  General 
room  ventilation  was  good  throughout  in  4  places,  fair  in  7,  and  bad  in  some 
parts,  in  the  remaining  3.  The  chief  reasons  for  bad  atmospheric  conditions 
were  the  presence  of  free  flames  without  vents,  the  necessity  of  keeping  win- 
dows closed  because  of  street  dust  and  smoke,  and  the  absence  of  air-agitators, 
exhausts  or  fans,  where  such  should  have  been  present.  In  1  place,  great,  but 
misplaced,  confidence  was  had  in  an  ozone  machine  to  purify  the  air.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  that  ventilating  experts  as  well  as  physicians  have 
proven  such  methods  entirely  fanciful.  In  8  places  heat  was  no  particular 
hazard  to  any  of  the  workers,  while  in  the  remaining  6  it  appeared  to  range 
about  85°  for  some.  It  came  from  the  kettles  and  ovens.  Cold  was  some 
hazard  to  a  number  of  workers  in  a  basement  quarter.  (For  Chocolate  Dip- 
ping see  below.)     The  work  was  so  conducted  that  fatigue  was  no  factor  in 

4  places  and  practically  so  in  8  more,  while  in  the  remaining  2,  employing  some 
300  workers,  several  fatigue  factors  were  present.  These  consisted  in  hurry- 
ing piece-work,  speeding  up,  monotonous  application,  constant  standing  by 
some  workers,  chairs  without  backs,  long  continued  faulty  postures,  and,  occa- 
sionally, heavy  lifting,  jarring  processes  and  loud  noises  from  press  machines. 
In  1  place  part  of  the  workers  had  to  climb  to  the  sixth  floor.  A  special 
barrel  lift,  shaker  and  emptier  was  used  in  one  place  to  offset  strain.  The 
workday  was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  3  places,  9  hours  in  9  places,  and  10 
hours  in  the  remaining  2  (for  males).  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  1 
place,  1  hour  for  females  in  another,  and  ^  hour  for  all  workers  in  all  other 
places.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  seemed  negligible 
in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  6  more,  bad  in  4  (and  not  reported  upon  in  2).  The 
predisposing  factors  were  the  use  of  common  towels,  common  drinking  cups, 
inadequate    washing    facilities,    and,    occasionally,    lots    of    flies,    poor    toilets, 


275 

promiscuous  spitting  upon  floors,  and  the  absence  of  cuspidors.  Candies  were 
also  handled  at  short  intervals  by  different  workers.  Eating  in  workrooms 
was  common,  but  some  places  prohibited  it  and  provided  good  dairy  lunch 
rooms.  In  no  places  were  workers  exposed  to  poisons,  except  such  fumes  as 
might  escape  from  heating  and  cooking  apparatus.  The  industrial  induce- 
ment to  stimulantism  appeared  some  factor  in  at  least  4  places,  with  the  fatigue 
hazard  the  principal  cause. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  10  establishments,  while 
a  fair  percentage  appeared  below  normal  in  the  remaining  4.  Outside  of  the 
frequency  of  bad  teeth  (said  to  be  due  to  eating  of  confections)  our  investi- 
gators reported  no  occupational  diseases.  Workers  themselves  made  very  few 
complaints,  although  it  was  said  in  some  places  that  new  workers  lost  their 
appetites  from  the  odors  present.  Investigators  reported  nauseating  odors  in 
numbers  of  places,  which  arose  from  the  syrups,  baking  processes,  steam,  etc 

Comments.  —  In  some  cities  municipal  regulations  prescribed  caps,  aprons 
and  careful  personal  supervision  of  workers,  particularly  directed  to  the  pres- 
ence of  venereal  and  contagious  diseases.  These  should  unquestionably  be 
adopted  in  all  places.  On  the  whole,  the  industry  was  found  to  average  up 
better  than  General  Factory  Processes  as  far  as  conditions  affecting  the  health 
of  the  workers  were  concerned.  More  attention  to  ventilation  of  work  quarters 
and  to  the  fatigue  question  are  suggested  for  a  number  of  establishments. 

CHOCOLATE  DIPPING.— The  process  of  making  chocolates  was  found 
present  in  9  establishments,  the  workers  being  divided  as  follows :  cooking  and 
hot  processes,  males  14,  females  42 ;  dipping,  males  1,  females  309 ;  packing  and 
shipping,  males  21,  females  233.  The  cooking  and  dipping  processes  did  not 
differ  materially  from  those  of  the  candy  industry  in  other  departments.  To 
facilitate  hardening  and  subsequent  handling  and  packing,  a  temperature  of  65° 
was  maintained  in  5  establishments,  60°  in  1,  and  from  60  to  68°  in  the  remain- 
ing 3.  In  5  plants,  chocolates  were  dipped  by  machine.  This  machine  con- 
veyed them  to  another  room,  which  was  kept  cool,  so  that  only  those  who 
were  employed  at  removing  the  chocolates  arid  storing  them  in  refrigerators 
were  exposed  to  the  cold.  Hand  dipping,,  however,  was  done  in  the  cool 
room.  Packers  sometimes  worked  in  the  cool  rooms.  It  was  said  that  one 
dipping  machine  would  do  the  work  of  80  hand  dippers.  Hand  dipping  was 
very  sedentary  work.  Workers  usually  wore  sweaters  and  other  warm  clothing 
in  the  cool  rooms,  but  more  of  them  should  have  been  so  provided.  The  chief 
hazard  appeared  to  be  to  hand  dippers  who  worked  at  hot  chocolate  kettles 
in  a  cool  room.  Another  moderate  hazard  appeared  to  be  alternate  exposures 
to  heat  and  cold,  while  the  materials  used  were  likely  to  produce  skin  irrita- 
tions in  certain  susceptible  persons.  In  1  place,  persons  with  a  tendency  to 
moist  hands  were  not  employed  on  chocolates.  In  another,  tincture  of  ferric 
chloride  was  applied  to  the  fingers  for  cuts,  hangnails,  etc.,  and  to  harden 
the  skin. 

CANNING   AND   PRESERVING.  —  PREPARING,    SORTING,    COOKING   OF 
VEGETABLES,   ETC. 

This  part  of  the  canning  and  preserving  industry  consists  in  the  various 
preparatory  and  cooking  processes  through  which  the  materials  pass.  These 
are  variously  named,  some  of  the  names  depending  upon  the  types  of  produce 


276 

handled,  etc.,  such  as  vining,  picking,  husking,  shelling,  stringing,  cutting,  peel- 
ing, sizing,  washing,  scalding,  steaming,  can  cleaning,  pickling  and  catsup  mak- 
ing. These  preparatory  processes  were  found  to  engage  a  total  of  559  wage- 
earners  (males  169  and  females  390)  at  the  time  of  our  inspections  in  12  estab- 
lishments which  were  investigated  in  8  cities.  In  practically  all  of  these,  various 
machine  methods  were  used  to  expedite  the  work,  and  especially  so  in  the 
larger  places.  There  were  no  labor  unions.  The  general  attitude  of  employers 
toward  employes  seemed  very  good  in  7  places,  fair  in  4  others,  and  not  good 
in  1  place.  The  general  type  of  workers  (especially  in  the  catsup,  preserves 
and  jelly  works,  and  also  in  a  number  of  the  vegetable  canning  and  pork  and 
bean  works)  was  good  in  8  plants,  while  a  considerable  percentage  of  ignorant 
help,  consisting  largely  of  foreigners,  was  employed  in  the  remaining  4.  The 
work  was  decidedly  seasonal,  but  there  seemed  to  be  a  considerable  demand  for 
help  during  the  canning  season,  and  in  all  but  4  places  (including  1  or  2  large 
plants,  however),  workers  appeared  to  remain  fairly  well  for  the  season.  In 
one  plant  it  was  said  anybody  could  get  a  job  and  that  consumptive  persons 
got  well  on  it! 

Various  forms  of  health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  and  vents  over 
hot  steaming  processes,  and  for  ventilation  of  quarters  were  found  installed  in 
3  places,  and  to  be  quite  efficient  in  2  of  them.  They  were  absent  in  the  re- 
maining 9.  Floor  treads  and  floor  drains  were  present  but  not  in  all  places 
where  needed.  Instructions  in  matters  of  personal  hygiene  were  given  atten- 
tion in  4  places,  while  there  was  also  a  city  supervision  in  3  of  these.  Females 
wore  special  caps  and  aprons  as  in  the  bakery  and  confectionery  trades  in 
some  places.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations.  The  general  con- 
struction of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  6  places,  fair  in  another, 
and  poor  in  the  remaining  5,  the  latter  including  plants  of  all  sizes.  Except 
in  small  places  these  processes  were  more  or  less  subdivided  into  various  rooms. 
At  dififerent  seasons,  different  vegetables  were  handled  with  the  same  help  and 
machinery.  The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  50  years, 
25;  45  to  50  years,  '42;  40  to  45  years,  100;  under  40  years,  392,  of  whom 
probably  10  to  15%  were  under  20,  most  of  the  latter,  females.  It  was  common 
to  find  whole  families  employed  in  the  work.  In  some  instances  "colonies" 
were  imported  even  from  outside  of  the  state  to  work  throughout  the  season, 
when  men,  women,  and  children  were  housed  in  company  buildings. 

While  some  of  the  vining,  shelling  and  dry  handling  of  A^egetables  created 
some  dustj  this  was  of  an  earthy  character  and  quite  negligible.  Quarters  were 
kept  clean  and  orderly  in  6  of  the  plants  when  visited,  fairly  so  in  4  others, 
and  not  so  in  the  remaining  2  (one  large  and  one  small  plant).  In  vegetable 
canning,  water,  steam  and  dampness  were  a  hazard  in  all  of  the  places,  and 
especially  so  in  about  half  of  them.  Getting  the  clothes  wet  and  standing  in 
wet  shoes  were  common  observations.  These  factors  differed  in  different  de- 
partments of  the  work.  Quarters  were  well  lighted  in  7  plants,  but  only  fairly 
so  for  certain  parts  in  the  remaining  5.  The  general  ventilation  was  good  in 
6  plants,  and  fair  in  the  remaining  6,  the  chief  reasons  for  fouling  the  air, 
where  such  existed,  being  the  escape  of  odors,  steam,  gas,  and  occasionally 
solder  fumes.  Heat  was  a  hazard  to  some  of  the  workers  in  all  places.  It 
was  rendered  worse  by  the  fact  that  most  of  the  work  was  done  in  the  warm 
season  of  the  year.  Many  of  the  workers  could  not  avoid  passing  from  hot 
steamy    quarters    to    cooler    rooms,    or    outdoors,    particularly    in    communities 


277 

where  outdoor  closets  or  privies  were  used.  With  the  exception  of  2  or  3 
plants  washing  facilities  were  very  meager,  and  such  conveniences  as  shower 
baths  for  hot  process  workers  were  lacking  in  all  places.  Fatigue  was  the 
chief  hazard  of  the  process.  This  seemed  to  be  especially  marked  for  the 
great  majority  of  the  workers  in  7  plants,  and  fairly  so  in  4  more.  Particu- 
larly was  this  so  in  canning  vegetables,  rather  than  in  making  catsup  and 
preserves.  The  chief  fatigue  features,  arranged  in  as  nearly  descending  order 
of  importance  as  possible,  were  monotonous  application,  constant  standing, 
absence  of  seats  (or  chairs  without  back  rests,  or  even  only  boxes),  speeding 
up,  hurrying  piece-work,  prolonged  faulty  postures,  long  hours,  lifting  heavy 
baskets  and  crates  (often  by  young  persons),  and,  occasionally,  loud  noises 
from  the  rush  of  tin  cans.  The  workday  varied  more  in  this  industry  than  in 
probably  any  other  investigated,  as  it  depended  largely  upon  the  receipts  of 
perishable  goods,  so  that  long  hours,  Sunday  work,  and  overtime  were  fre- 
quently necessary,  in  which  all  workers  (by  law  this  is  an  industry  in  which 
the  hours  for  females  are  not  limited  to  10  hours  per  day)  were  apt  to  be 
engaged.  In  5  plants  it  was  usually  the  rule  to  take  1  hour  for  a  noon  recess, 
while  in  the  others,  the  length  of  this  recess  was  more  or  less  determined  by 
the  work  on  hand  and  the  workers'  piece-work  obligations.  In  2  plants  night 
shifts  were  employed.  As  an  instance  of  the  long  hours,  an  engineer  at  one 
plant  said  that  it  was  the  night  watchman's  duty  to  arouse  him  every  so  often 
at  night  to  see  that  the  boilers  were  in  a  safe  condition.  The  liability  to  the 
contraction  of  communicable  diseases  seemed  a  negligible  hazard  in  1  place, 
fairly  so  in  3  others,  but  bad  in  the  remaining  8,  the  chief  features  being  the 
use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  towels,  absence  of  cuspidors,  promiscuous 
spitting,  collecting  of  refuse  outside  of  buildings,  strong  odors,  swarms  of 
flies,  poor  washing  facilities,  dirty  roller  towels,  and  filthy  closets  (in  some 
places  men  used  corn  husks  for  toilet  paper),  finally,  the  lack  of  any  medical 
supervision  to  intercept  diseased  persons.  In  a  number  of  places  conditions 
were  such  as  to  favor  a  low  tone  of  morals,  enhanced  by  the  large  numbers  of 
persons  of  both  sexes  working  together.  Sore  hands  and  fingers  from  work- 
ing and  peeling  in  water  and  steam,  and  from  accidental  cuts,  were  fairly 
frequent.  The  risk  of  occupational  poisoning  was  nil  so  far  as  could  be  de- 
termined. In  1  place,  however.  Soldering  was  done  in  the  same  quarters. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantism  was  considerable  to  most  of  the 
workers  in  this  industry,  due,  first  of  all  to  the  fatigue  hazard,  after  which 
the  subjection  to  heat,  moisture  and  dampness  and  meager  sanitary  arrange- 
ments were  added,  while  in  3  places  drinking  water  facilities  were  very  in- 
adequate. 

At  the  time  visited  the  general  appearances  of  workers,  ■  as  to  health, 
averaged  good  in  7  places,  and  only  fair  in  the  remaining  5.  However,  this 
depended  largely  upon  whether  the  plant  was  seen  early  in  the  season  or  not, 
and  whether  workers  had  been  subject  to  several  days  of  prolonged  work  just 
previously.  It  is  conservative  to  state,  however,  that  there  were  many  workers 
in  the  total  number  who  should  have  had  a  physician's  certificate  to  be  allowed 
to  continue  work  longer.  Very  few  of  the  workers  were  spoken  to  personally, 
and  these  took  the  position  that  all  the  hazards  around  them  were  "matters  of 
course".  None  of  them,  of  course,  had  any  basis  of  knowledge  upon  which  to 
assume  that  they  were  or  were  not  fitted  to  the  work  at  hand,  or  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  work  might  be  seriously  damaging  to  the  health. 


278 

Comments.  —  The  spells  of  rush  work  in  this  industry  make  it  necessary 
that  all  workers  so  employed  should  be  physically  normal,  and  perfectly  able 
to  withstand  the  stresses  necessary.  This  can  only  be  attained  through  a 
physical  examination  of  workers  at  the  time  of  employment.  In  addition,  all 
deleterious  conditions  of  environment,  as  mentioned  above,  should  be  given 
every  thought  toward  eliminating  them.  It  is  recognized  that  the  education  of 
the  employes  themselves  in  their  personal  care  and  habits,  and  to  accepting 
conveniences  arranged  for  them,  is  a  fundamental  feature  in  bringing  about  a 
more  perfect  health  standard  among  them. 

CANNING   AND    PRESERVING. FILLING,    SEALING,    PACKING  OF 

VEGETABLES,   ETC. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  process  differentiations  in  the  canning  and  pre- 
serving industry,  but  we  have  found  it  advisable  to  make  two  sub-divisions : 
(1)  Preparing,  Cooking,  etc.;  and  (2)  Filling,  Sealing,  etc.  Under  the  latter 
head  are  included  capping,  bottling,  corking  of  catsups  and  jellies,  and  "can- 
ning" or  packing,  inspecting  (for  leaks),  sealing,  soldering,  final  sterilizing, 
labeling,  weighing  and  packing.  In  the  12  establishments  investigated,  there 
were  found  to  be  a  total  of  252  workers  in  this  second  set  of  subprocesses,  of 
whom  117  were  males,  and  135  were  females.  The  same  general  conditions 
concerning  the  workplaces  and  the  character  of  the  workers  obtained  as  before 
described.  The  differences  in  hazards  in  this  division  were  that  water,  damp- 
ness and  steam  were  usually  considerably  less.  Quarters,  also,  proved  to  be 
better  lighted.  Exposure  to  heat  was  about  the  same.  The  fatigue  features 
were  also  practically  identical.  There  was  a  greater  liability  to  lead  poisoning, 
due  to  the  soldering  machines,  and  processes,  but  in  only  1  place  did  this  appear 
to  be  a  bad  hazard.  Here  it  was  all  hand  work.  In  machine  soldering,  as  else- 
where, the  risk  was  limited  since  workers  were  not  so  close  to  the  fumes 
produced,  while  the  personal  factor  of  carelessness  in  handling  and  even 
chewing  strips  of  solder  were  present.  The  general  appearance  of  workers 
was  the  same  as  in  other  departments.  Comments.  —  There  is  the  same 
necessity  for  hoods  and  vents  over  steam  and  fume  processes,  and  for  medical 
supervision  as  mentioned  in  the  other  processes  of  the  work. 

CARBONATED   WATERS. COMPOUNDING. 

The  compounding  of  carbonated  waters  was  investigated  in  4  establish- 
ments, one  of  which  was  a  brewery.  The  process  was  found  to  employ  but 
very  few  persons,  —  a  total  of  14  being  in  the  4  places.  Sometimes  the  same 
workers  were  also  engaged  in  bottling.  In  1  place  the  work  was  done  at 
mineral  springs.  There  appeared  to  be  no  hazards  connected  with  the  work, 
and  premises  were  usually  in  good  conditions,  although  flies  were  noted  in  1 
place  due  to  the  absence  of  screens.  In  one  instance  a  consumptive  was  re- 
ported who  was  found  to  be  engaged  as  a  labeller  of  bottles. 

ICE  MANUFACTURE. 

The  manufacture  of  artificial  ice  was  investigated  in  connection  with  the 
ice  business,  cold  storage,  brewing  and  bottling.  In  the  14  plants  seen, 
located  in  3  cities,  there  were  a  total  of  164  wage-earners  employed,  all  males, 


279 

at  the  ice  manufacturing  work  itself.  The  ammonia  and  brine  processes  were 
used.  About  60  percent  of  the  ice  manufactured  was  used  at  once  and  the 
balance  placed  in  storage.  The  workers  were  members  of  union  organizations 
in  8  places.  The  general  attitude  of  employers  toward  the  welfare  of  workers 
appeared  good  in  10  places,  fair  in  3,  and  questionably  bad  in  1  only.  A  gen- 
erally intelligent  class  of  workers  was  employed  in  7  places,  and  fairly  so  in 
the  remaining  7.  Workers  appeared  to  remain  fairly  constantly  at  all  places, 
although  the  work  was  seasonal  for  a  considerable  percentage  of  them.  Some 
health  appliances  were  present  in  a  few  places.  In  one,  all  ice  was  handled 
and  stored  by  machinery.  There  were  shower  baths  in  3,  while  safety  helmets 
(to  use  in  cases  of  accident  to  the  ammonia  apparatus)  were  at  hand  in  several 
places.  In  2  plants,  some  attention  was  given  to  instruction  of  employes  in 
matters  of  personal  health.     There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations. 

The  chief  hazards  were  found  to  be  water,  steam,  and  humidity^  combined 
with  exposure  to  cold,  due  to  the  nature  of  the  process.  Temperatures  ranged 
from  0  to  50  degrees  Fahrenheit,  being  lowest  in  cold  storage  quarters  for 
meats.  Probably  the  main  cause  for  ill  health,  was  the  more  or  less  frequent 
alternations  between  cold  quarters  and  the  warm  exterior.  Fatigue  was  a 
factor  for  most  of  the  workers,  due,  chiefly,  to  the  laborious  character  of  the 
work,  long  hours,  more  or  less  monotonous  application,  as  well  as  strain  and 
prolonged  standing.  Usually  there  was  some  diversity  of  work.  The  workday 
was  found  to  be  8  hours  in  4  places,  9  hours  in  1  place,  10  hours  in  1  place,  and 
12  hours  in  the  remaining  8  places.  In  5  places  night  shifts  were  present. 
Seven  days  a  week  and  no  time  off  for  Sunday  was  the  custom.  The  noon 
recess  was  1  hour  in  6  places,  J  hour  in  6  more,  and  more  or  less  "as  desired" 
in  the  remaining  2.  A  morning  recess  was  taken  in  some  places.  The  liability 
to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  fair  hazard  in  some  8  of  the 
establishments,  due  to  such  factors  as  the  use  of  common  towels,  common 
drinking  cups,  very  poor  washing  facilities  and  closets,  and,  less  often,  to  the 
absence  of  cuspidors  and  spitting  into  dry  places.  First-aid  equipments  for 
injuries,  cuts,  bruises,  etc.,  were  more  or  less  provided  for  in  some  places. 
The  liability  to  poisoning  was  limited  to  the  exposure  to  ammonia  gas,  but 
this  was  no  hazard  unless  leaks  or  the  breaking  of  carboys  occurred.  As 
stated,  gas  helmets  were  supplied  in  some  places  to  meet  such  emergencies. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  more  or  less  considerable  for 
practically  all  workers,  due  to  the  fatigue  factor,  the  wet  and  chilling  character 
of  much  of  the  work,  and  the  permitting  of  liquor  drinking  during  work  hours, 
in  some  places. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  averaged  up  fair  to  good  in  all  places, 
although  a  number  of  workers  were  seen  who  were  questionably  below  par  in 
health.  The  chief  complaints  of  the  workers  were  long  hours,  Sunday  work, 
and  "cannot  keep  feet  dry"  (and  as  a  result  of  this  hazard)  the  great  frequency 
of  rheumatic  afflictions.  Comments.  —  Workers  who  enter  this  industry  should 
do  so  only  after  being  advised  by  a  physician  that  they  are  normal,  and  capable 
of  performing  the  work  without  predisposing  themselves  to  health  disasters. 
In  the  course  of  the  work,  shorter  hours  in  about  half  of  the  places,  good 
equipment  of  boots  and  aprons,  and  avoidance  of  alternation  between  cold  and 
warm    places   must   be   given    serious    consideration. 


28o 


LIQUORS,  MALT. BREWING. 

The  brewing  of  beer  was  investigated  in  9  establishments,  in  3  cities,  in 
which  115  men  were  engaged  in  this  process.  In  all  places  the  most  improved 
modern  methods  appeared  to  be  in  use,  and  the  workers  all  belonged  to  unions. 
The  general  attitude  toward  the  welfare  of  employes  seemed  very  good  in  6 
establishments,  fair  in  2  others,  and  quite  indifferent  in  the  remaining  1.  An 
intelligent  type  of  employes  composed  the  work  shifts  in  all  places,  and  a 
certain  amount  of  skill  was  necessary.  In  7  of  the  9  places  the  workers  were 
practically  all  old-time  employes,  while  in  the  remaining  2  there  seemed  to  be 
a  considerable  amount  of  changing.  The  business  is  not  one  requiring  any- 
thing special  in  the  way  of  health  appliances,  except  that  arrangements  for 
special  ventilation  should  be  at  hand  when  necessary  to  clean  kettles,  and  the 
like.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations,  except  such  as  obtained 
through  the  unions. 

The  process  usually  occupied  2  to  4  floors,  although  bottling  and  inspect- 
ing were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters  in  2  places.     The  age-group  estima- 
tions of  employes  summed  up  as  follows:  over  50  years,  6;  between  45  and  50' 
years,  6 ;  between  40  and  45  years,  10 ;  between  20  and  40  years,  61 ;  and  under 
20  years,  23. 

Of  the  general  hazards,  steam  and  himiiidity,  which  are  both  necessary 
features  of  the  process,  were  a  fair  risk.  Two  places  had  air-conditioning- 
systems,  change  rooms,  lockers,  and  good  washing  facilities  to  protect  workers 
from  the  effects  of  the  hazard.  Quarters  were  somewhat  warm,  especially  in 
the  summer  season.  The  going  into  cold  storage  cellars  from  these  warm 
steamy  quarters  was  the  worst  feature.  The  milling  room  was  usually  very 
dusty.  Fatigue  could  not  be  considered  a  hazard  at  all.  The  workday  was 
8  hours  in  all  places,  with  a  1-hour  noon  recess.  Night  shifts  existed  in  2 
places.  The  risk  of  contracting  communicable  diseases  appeared  negligible  in 
4  places,  but  present. in  the  remaining  5,  due  to  poor  washing  facilities  and 
toilets,  the  use  of  common  towels,  and  to  some  spitting  about.  There  was  no 
apparent  risk  of  poisoning  in  the  process.  A  5%  solution  of  sulphuric  acid 
was  used  after  each  brew  to  clean  out  the  kettles,  when  a  worker  might  re- 
main inside  for  an  hour.  The'  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was,  of 
course,  considerable  in  all  places,  since  the  drinking  of  the  beverages  was 
allowed  during  work,  while  the  subjection  to  depressing  influences  of  humidity 
and  heat  favored  it. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  graded  as  good  in  4  places,  and 
at  least  fair  in  the  remaining  5.  The  workers  made  no  complaints.  Com- 
ments. —  Arrangements  should  be  made  whereby  workers  do  not  change  from 
hot  to  cold  work,  for  the  supplying  of  good  boots  where  needed,  for  good 
washing  facilities,  including  shower  baths,  and  for  the  better  removal  of 
steam  and  water  in  some  places.  A  much  smaller  limit  should  be  put  on  the 
amount  of  ,beer  allowed  to  be  drunk,  for,  although  actual  intoxication  was 
usually  a  cause  for  discharge,  there  is  no  question  but  tha;r  most  of  these 
workers  drank  too  much  of  the  beverage  to  maintain  a  physiologic  status. 

COLD  STORAGE.  — Storage  and  fermentation  cellars,  keg  and  bottle- 
filling  rooms  (and  occasionally  wash  houses)  were  kept  at  a  temperature  of 
82°  to  40°  F.  They  were  very  damp.  Ammonia  leaks  from  the  cooling  system 
occasionally  occurred,  and  some  plants  had  no  helmets  or  air  apparatus  to  pro- 


28l 

tect  workers  while  repairing  such  leaks;  cellars  were  darkened,  and  poorly 
ventilated  since  windows  and  doors  were  kept  closed.  Storage  casks  were 
shellaced  yearly  or  so  when  the  great  danger  of  wood  alcohol  poisoning  was 
present.  Some  firms  used  a  suction  pump  to  remove  fumes,  and  pure  air  was 
admitted  by  means  of  an  opening  in  bottom  of  casks.  Only  a  few  men  re- 
mained constantly  in  cellars  although  in  smaller  places  those  from  brewing 
quarters  were  going  in  and  out  of  cellars.  Rubber  boots  and  woolen  clothes 
were  usually  worn. 

LIQUORS,   MALT,  AND  CARBONATED  WATERS. BOTTLING. 

Inasmuch  as  bottling  is  practically  the  same,  whether  malt  liquors  or 
simple  carbonated  waters  are  put  up,  this  process  is  considered  as  one.  In 
fact,  in  some,  breweries,  simple  carbonated  waters  were  bottled,  as  well  as 
malted  beverages.     Other  breweries  did  no  bottling  at  all. 

As  investigated  in  7  establishments,  located  in  4  cities,  the  bottling  was 
found  to  engage  280  men.  Unions  existed  in  the  breweries.  Mechanical 
methods  were  used  in  all  places.  The  general  attitude  towards  workers  seemed 
fair  to  good  everywhere;  the  same  applies  to  the  type  of  workers  and  their 
retention  at  the  process.  In  4  places  some  health  appliances  were  present,  such 
as  air-conditioning  systems,  good  floor  drains,  etc.  In  2  places  (carbonated 
waters)  instructions  concerning  health  and  personal  hygiene  were  given,  while 
first-aid  equipments  were  present  in  practically  all  places.  Bottling  quarters 
were  hygienically  well  constructed  in  4  places,  fairly  so  in  2  more,  and  not  so 
in  1  large  brewery.  Other  processes  were  present  in  1  or  2  places,  such  as 
washing  of  bottles,  sorting  and  Labeling.  The  age-group  estimations  of  this 
class  of  employes  summed  up  as  follows:  over  50  years,  2;  45  to  50  years,  4; 
20  to  40  years,  274  (in  the  latter  there  were  some  under  20  years).  The  work 
was   unskilled. 

The  principal  hazard  was  exposure  to  water,  steam  and  dampness.  This 
was  more  marked  in  the  breweries.  In  2. breweries  the  bottling  quarters  were 
only  fairly  clean  and  orderly,  while  one  small  place  was  very  dark.  General 
room  ventilation  was  fair  to  good  throughout.  The  work  could  not  be  con- 1 
sidered  fatigiimg,  although  constant  standing  was  the  rule.  The  workday  was  j 
8  hours  in  5  places,  and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  2  (both  carbonated  water 
plants).  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  6  places,  and  J  hour  in  the  remaining 
1.  Overtime  was  seldom  resorted  to.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable 
diseases  was  about  the  same  as  described  under  Brewing.  There  appeared  no 
risk  of  poisoning,  although  the  presence  of  lead  in  bottle  caps  was  not,  un- 
fortunately, inquired  into.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was 
marked  in  all  of  the  breweries. 

The  average  appearance  of  workers  seemed  good  in  4  places,  fair  in  2 
others,  while  not  good  in  1  small  place.  The  workers  made  practically  no 
complaints  concerning  the  effect  of  the  work  upon  health,  except  the  dampness 
and  getting  the  feet  wet.  In  some  of  the  places,  sanitary  conveniences  were 
excellent,  such  as  marble  toilets,  steel  lockers,  floors  flushed  every  night,  etc. 
Comments.  —  The  chief  risk  in  this  process  would  appear  to  be  the  personal 
factor,  that  is,  the  extent  to  which  workers  imbibed  of  the  beverages  produced, 
and  the  protection  of  the  person  against  dampness. 


282 


LIQUORS,  MALT. KEG  FILLING. 

Low  teiiiperature,  water  and  dampness  characterized  this  process,  while 
there  was  the  same  inducement  to  industrial  alcoholism  as  elsewhere.  In  some 
places  workers  in  bottling  rooms  also  were  subjected  to  low  temperature. 
Filling,  adding  caramel,  corking,  labeling,  pasteurizing,  and  crating  were  the 
sub-processes.  In  one  plant  an  excellent  air-conditioning  system  was  present  in 
all  quarters,  lifting  of  kegs  was  done  by  machinery  and  there  was  a  lunch 
room  to  which  all  workers  were  required  to  go  to  eat. 

LIQUORS,   MALT.  KEG  WASHING. 

In  all  breweries  a  certain  number  of  men  are  engaged  in  the  washing  of 
beer  kegs.  In  large  places  this  in  done  mechanically.  In  7  places  investigated, 
there  was  a  total  of  61  men  so  employed,  4  of  whom  were  over  40  years  of 
age.  The  work  was  done  in  poorly  constructed  parts  of  the  building  in  3 
places,  and  in  practically  all  the  places  the  workers  were  subject  to  standing 
in  water  and  getting  their  clothes  wet.  In  one  place  on  the  floor  the  water  was  3 
inches  deep.  In  4  places  the  light  was  not  good.  In  the  same  number  of  places 
heating  methods  were  inefficient  for  the  cooler  seasons.  The  work  did  not  seem 
unduly  fatiguing,  and  an  8-hour  day  was  observed  in  all  places,  with  1  hour  for 
noon  in  6,  and  }  in  1  place.  While  the  men  appeared  fairly  healthy  in  all  places 
they  were  very  wet  and  dirty  in  some.  The  chief  complaints  were  rheumatism 
and  other  effects  from  the  wet  character  of  the  work,  and  the  subjection  to  both 
hot  and  cold  water.  Numbers  of  them  said  they  were  constantly  wet.  Com- 
ments. —  In  order  to  insure  that  such  employes  are  properly  clothed,  this 
feature  should  probably  be  taken  in  hand  by  the  employers,  and  good  boots  and 
aprons  provided.  Obviously,  proper  heating,  good  light,  etc.,  are  necessary.  In 
1  place  all  lifting  was  done  by  machinery.  As  with  other  departments  in  the 
brewery   business,   most   of   these   workers   drank   entirely   too   heavily   of   beer. 

The  RELINING  of  KEGS  with  hot  pitch  and  resin  subjected  a  few 
workers  to  the  irritating  effects  of'  the  smoke  and  fumes  from  this  process. 
One  pale  and  anemic  worker  was  found  so  engaged  who  made  considerable 
complaint. 

TOBACCO. MOISTENING  OR  ''CASINO". 

In  practically  all  tobacco  and  cigar  factories  the  tobacco  is  soaked  up, 
moistened  or  sprayed  with  water,  then  placed  in  cases  (trays)  and  laid  away 
to  flavor.  Sometimes  weak  acids,  ammonia,  wine,  etc.,  are  added.  But  a  very 
few  persons  are  employed  at  this  even  in  the  largest  plants. 

There  were  found  to  be  15  men  engaged  at  this  work  in  5  of  the  larger 
plants  investigated.  They  were  usually  old  time  employes,  and  7  of  them 
were  found  to  be  over  40  years  of  age.  The  work  was  usually  done  in  the 
basement  or  some  side  room,  the  general  surroundings  of  which  were  a 
healthy  place  in  which  to  work  in  only  1  instance.  The  work  required  very 
little  skill.  In  1  place  there  were  local  exhausts  to  remove  tobacco  vapors 
which  arose. 

The  chief  hazards  of  the  work  were  its  very  wet  and  sloppy  character, 
its  location  in  usually  very  poorly  and  illy  ventilated  quarters  and  the  lack  of 
proper  clothing  which  the  workers  wore  to  prevent  wet  feet,  and  wet  gar- 
ments,    Workers   complained  of   rheumatism   and   poor  floor  drainage.     They 


283 

were  also  constantly  handling  strong  wet  solutions  of  tobacco  and  its  principles, 
and  were  probably  most  exposed  to  these,  both  through  skin  absorption  and 
inhalation  of  vapors,  of  any  of  the  workers  in  the  industry. 

TOBACCO. STEMMING. 

The  stemming  or  stripping  of  tobacco  leaves  is  one  of  the  preliminary 
processes  in  the  manufacture  of  cigars  and  the  various  forms  of  tobacco  put 
upon  the  market.  In  a  few  instances  machines  which  were  said  to  be  more 
or  less  satisfactory  were  used  to  do  this  work,  but  the  vast  amount  of  it  was 
done  by  hand.  Very  little  skill  i  was  required,  except  for  binders  and  fine 
wrappers,  although  experience  developed  considerable  dexterity.  In  many 
places,  especially  in  the  larger  cities,  foreign  women  of  all  ages  were  em- 
ployed at  this  process.  They  were  accustomed  to  sit  on  low  stools  or  boxes 
within  low  stalls,  surrounded  by  the  heaps  of  tobacco  leaves.  In  one  place 
which  did  this  as  an  exclusive  process  (outside  of  packing  and  shaking)  a 
good  class  of  girls  were  employed  at  benches.  Their  stools  with  straight  board 
backs,  however,  were  not  at  all  comfortable.  The  process  was  investigated  in 
22  establishments  located  in  9  cities,  and  was  found  to  engage  a  total  of 
1,053  wage-earners,  of  whom  160  were  males  and  893  were  females.  Men  were 
more  apt  to  be  employed  in  smaller  places,  and  in  miscellaneous  "tobacco" 
rather  than  cigar  works.  In  2  of  the  plants  investigated  there  were  union 
organizations ;  here  strippers  and  banders  were  the  only  females  employed. 
As  nearly  as  could  be  judged  the  managerial  attitude  toward  the  welfare  of 
this  class  of  workers  appeared  good  in  17  places,  but  more  or  less  indifferent 
in  the  remaining  5.  In  10  places  a  fairly  intelligent  type  of  workers  was  em- 
ployed, but  in  the  remaining  12  a  large  percentage  of  ignorant  help,  mostly  non- 
English  speaking  foreign  women  were  engaged.  In  2  establishments  there 
were  some  forms  of  health  appliances,  such  as  exhaust  hoods  over  the  piles 
of  leaves  as  they  were  shaken  out.  In  3  places  some  organized  health  instruc- 
tion was  given.  In  none  of  the  cigar  factories  were  there  sick  benefit  associa- 
tions. Such  were  present,  however,  in  2  tobacco  works.  The  general  construc- 
tion of  workrooms  was  hygienically  good  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but 
not  so  in  the  remaining  9,  which  included  some  large  as  well  as  some  small 
places.  Particularly,  were  old  types  of  factory  buildings  with  low  ceilings, 
small  window  space,  and  rough  floors  at  fault  in  this  respect.  Outside  of  small 
places  this  process  was  usually  in  quarters  by  itself,  although  in  two  instances 
in  large  establishments  some  preparing  and  Cleansing,  Rolling  and  Bunch-break- 
ing were  carried  on  in  the  same  room.  The  age-group  estimations  summed  up 
as  follows : 

No.  Wage- 
Age-groups.  earners. 

Over  50  years \ 33 

From  45  to  50 53 

From  40  to  45 109 

Under  40  858 

1,053 

About  5  per  cent  of  those  included  in  the  last  group  were  under  20  years  of  age, 
hence  there  was  a  tendency  to  employ  older  persons  at  this  work. 


284 

The  work  is  slightly  dusty,  the  dust  coming  more  from  the  floor  accumula- 
tions than  from  the  stripping  of  the  tobacco  leaves  which  are  more  or  less  moist. 
In  addition  to  this,  however,  some  15  places  were  littered  up  with  dust  and  dirt 
over  the  floors,  on  window  ledges,  rafters,  lamps,  etc.,  while  in  12  places,  at  least, 
considerable  more  attention  should  have  been  given  to  cleaning  of  quarters.  In 
1  place  employing  some  35  persons  quarters  were  quite  damp,  due  to  the  proxitnity 
of  the  workroom  to  the  tobacco  casing  process.-  In  19  places  the  lighting  of 
work  quarters  (naturally  or  artificially)  was  good,  while  it  was  bad  in  only  1 
place.  However,  artificial  lighting  was  usually  by  naked  electric  lamps  sus- 
pended by  cords  from  the  ceiling  or  by  gas  jets.  The  ventilation  of  work 
quarters  was  good  in  4  places,  fair  in  9  others,  but  bad  in  the  remaining  9.  This 
was  due  principally  to  stagnation  of  the  air  tb  which  were  jdded  abnormal 
temperature-humidity  relations  and  contamination  with  tobacco  dust  and  odors 
as  well  as  fouling  w^ith  the  breaths  of  many  persons  working  somewhat  close  to- 
gether. In  5  places  quarters  were  unduly  warm  particularly  in  summer  time,  due 
to  locations  and  weather-exposed  quarters  under  low  ceilings  or  roofs.  All 
places  were,  as  a  rule,  sufficiently  well  heated  for  winter  work.  Fatigue  was  a 
hazard  in  all  places  and  apparently  more  so  in  10  places  than  in  the  remaining  12. 
Its  chief  causes  arranged  in  descending  order  were :  monotonous  application, 
faulty  postures  (usually  in  a  stooped  position  seated  on  low  stools  or  boxes, 
which  necessitated  the  extension  of  the  feet  and  limbs  out  in  front  of  the 
worker),  and  hurrying  piece-work.  Less  often  were  noted  constant  standing  and 
evident  speeding  up.  In  very  few  places  were  there  any  backs  to  the  boxes  or 
low  stools  on  which  the  workers  sat.  The  workday  was  8  hours  in  6  places, 
between  8  and  9  hours  in  9  places,  and  between  9  and  10  hours  (and  occasion- 
ally longer)  in  the  remaining  7  places.  It  was  difficult  in  some  places  to  find 
out  the  length  of  the  workday,  for  apparently  workers  were  allowed  to  come 
early  and  start  to  work  and  to  continue  with  practically  little  restriction  as 
long  as  they  wished.  They  probably  did  not  exceed  10  hours  very  often.  This 
was  found  to  apply  to  the  noon  recess  as  well.  This  recess  as  nearly  as  could 
be  ascertained  ranged  as  follows  :  1  hour  in  13  places  (in  some  places  insisted 
upon)  ;  f  hour  in  3  places ;  and  less  than  this  in  the  remaining  6.  Workers 
were  usually  accustomed  to  suit  themselves  about  other  recess  periods  for  light 
lunching,  etc.  However,  the  necessity  for  continuous  work  in  order  to  make 
"a  day's  wages"  resulted  in  our  investigators  seeing  very  few  persons  idling. 
The  sedentary  character  of  the  work  was  also  a  very  detrimental  feature  of  it, 
from  the  health  point  of  view.  In  most  places  the  stock  was  brought  to  the 
workers  and  the  stripped  leaves  removed  without  their  having  to  get  up  to  do 
the  same.  The  liability  to  poisoning  concerned  the  tobacco  element  entirely 
and  was  not  materially  different  from  that  described  for  the  workers  in  the 
rolling  and  similar  processes.  The  industrial  inducement  to  stimulantisni  was 
marked  in  20  places  at  least  where  the  fatigue  factor,  combined  with  inactivity, 
the  breathing  of  tobacco  vapors  and  dust,  and  the  depressing  influences  of  poor 
ventilation,  as  described,  were  the  chief  incitors.  There  was  some  complaint 
of  alcoholism  among  this  class  of  workers.  In  2  establishments,  however, 
practically  none  of  these  deleterious  factors  existed.  The  liability  to  contract- 
ing communicable  diseases  was  negligible  in  7  places,  but  a  hazard  in  the  re- 
maining 15,  and  particularly  so  in  7.  The  chief  reasons  were  the  crowding 
together  of  numbers  of  workers  into  the  same  room  which  was  dirty  and 
dusty,  and  where  no  medical  supervision  obtained  to  keep  out  persons  suffering 


285 

from  consumption  or  other  communicable  maladies.  In  addition  there  were 
common  drinking  cups  and  the  use  of  the  same  towels,  often,  also,  very  poor 
washing  facilities  and  toilets.  In  only  a  few  of  the  places  where  men  were 
employed  were  there  any  cuspidors.  There  appeared  a  slight  risk  of  conveying 
infection  by  means  of  the  materials  handled,  but  this  was  usually  not  short- 
intervaled  enough  to  be  of  moment.  In  some  places  men  and  women  were  em- 
ployed together  and  in  some  of  these  the  morals  seemed  open  to  question. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  averaged  well  in  10  places,  while  in 
the  remaining  12  there  were  a  good  many  pale,  anemic,  or  otherwise  unhealthy 
looking  workers.  They  were  mot-e  noticeable  in  poorly  ventilated  quarters.  It 
was  difficult  to  get  much  information  from  employes  concerning  the  effects  of 
the  work  upon  their  health  since  large  number  of  them  could  not  speak 
English  and  most  of  the  balance  appeared  very  reticent,  particularly  in  the 
presence  of  their  employers.  The  complaints  gathered  were :  digestive  dis- 
turbances;  sickness  and  fainting;  that  new  workers  were  most  affected;  and 
that  female  disorders  were  more  than  usually  prevalent  (probably  due  to  the 
effects  of  the  inhaled  tobacco  dust  and  perhaps  its  absorption  through  the  skin 
of  the  hands  and  fingers).  Investigators  reported  the  following  instances  of 
industrial  diseases  which  they  observed  while  on  their  visits  of  inspection: 
acute  tobaccoism,  2  cases ;  tuberculosis,  2  cases ;  and  irregular  heart  beat  in 
numbers  of  persons.  Comments.  —  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  more  or  less 
drudgery  class  of  work  will  be  eventually  successfully  superceded  by  machine 
methods  for  the  good  of  the  health  of  the  workers  concerned.  In  the  mean- 
time every  effort  should  be  made  to  curtail  the  monotony,  to  overcome  the 
inactivity,  to  promote  ventilation  by  artificial  means,  and  to  supervise  the 
health  of  the  individual  workers. 

TOBACCO.  —  CIGAR  BUNCHING  AND  ROLLING. 

This  process  consists  in  "bunch  breaking"  the  tobacco  by  one  set  of  work- 
ers and  "rolling"  the  bunches  into  cigars  or  stogies  by  another  set  who  apply 
the  binders  and  wrappers.  From  a  health  point  of  view,  both  processes  were 
similar. 

The  process  was  investigated  in  20  plants  located  in  6  cities  and  employ- 
ing a  total  of  3,209  wage-earners,  of  whom  669  were  males  and  2,540  were 
females.  A  small  amount  of  mechanical  assistance  (canvass  and  rollers  in 
bunching  and  a  suction  system  in  rolling)  was  found  present  in  a  number  of 
places,  but,  outside  of  this,  the  work  was  practically  all  hand  manipulated. 
Workers  were  usually  seated  close  together,  in  front  of  little  desks  arranged 
in  long  rows,  so  that  their  elbows  nearly  touched  side  by  side  and  their  feet 
nearly  touched  those  opposite  them. 

Unions  existed  in  2  of  the  places  investigated  (here  men  made  the  en- 
tire cigar,  did  their  own  bunch  breaking,  rolling,  selecting  and  packing).  The 
general  attitude  of  the  employers  toward  the  help  in  this  process  appeared  good 
in  at  least  18  of  the  20  places,  while  the  type  of  employes  was  good  in  15  and 
largely  an  ignorant  class,  usually  foreigners,  in  the  remaining  5.  The  workers 
were  semi-skilled  and  dexterity  had  made  them  quite  adept.  A  large  class  of 
girls  made  up  this  group  of  workers,  while  in  some  instances  their  mothers 
were  engaged  in  the  tobacco  stemming  and  stripping  department.  Endeavors 
were  apparently  made  at  all  places  to  retain  the  same  help  although  in  4  places 


286 

the  personel  appeared  to  change  considerably,  according  to  statements  made. 
Where  the  suction  systems  were  present,  these  acted  in  a  manner  as  health 
appliances,  but,  outside  of  this,  other  arrangements  for  conserving  the  health  of 
the  workers  were  generally  absent,  although  in  5  places  sanitary  conveniences 
and  natural  means  of  ventilation  were  good.  Restaurants  were  present  in 
some  places.  In  3  places  some  attention  was  given  to  instructions  upon  per- 
sonal hygiene.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations.  The  general  con- 
struction of  workrooms  was  good  from  a  hygienic  viewpoint  in  8  places,  fair 
in  2  others,  but  poor  in  the  remaining  10.  In  8  places  workers  in  the  various 
sub-processes  were  all  on  the  same  floor  and  in  the  same  room,  while  oc- 
casionally other  processes  such  as  Stripping,  were  also  present.  Age-group 
estimations  for  these  workers  summed  up  as  follows : 

No.  Wage- 
Age-gronps.  earners. 

Over  50  years 13 

45  to  50  years 52 

40  to  45  years 169 

Under  40  years , 2 ,  975 

'  Total    : 3,209 

About  25  per  cent  of  the  latter  group  were  under  20  years  .of  age. 

Dust,  consisting  of  tobacco  disintergrations  was  present  to  a  small  amount 
in  all  places,  but  only  in  a  few,  where  general  cleanliness  and  order  were  not 
maintained,  was  it  much  of  a  health-hazard.  In  some  places  old  and  rough 
floors  made  cleaning  difficult.  Light  was  poor  in  these  quarters  in  5  of  the  2(1 
places,  particularly  for  workers  on  the  interior  parts  of  large  rooms.  Most 
places  resorted  to  white-washing  or  light  painting  once  a  year  to  aid  in  lighting. 
In  some  large  plants  most  of  the  work  was  done  under  gas  light.  The  ventilatioi 
was  good  in  4  places,  fair  in  12,  and  had  in  the  remaining  4.  Close,  stuffy 
workrooms  filled  with  large  numbers  of  persons  (sometimes  hundreds  in  the 
same  room)  and  no  means  of  overcoming  the  stagnation  of  the  atmosphere 
was  the  principal  reason  for  air  vitiation.  Many  of  the  quarters  appeared  very 
close  upon  first  entering  them,  although  the  condition  was  probably  not 
noticed  to  any  extent  by  the  busy  workers  engaged  within.  Fatigue  was  also 
a  chief  hazard  in  this  process.  The  chief  reasons  arranged  in  descending 
order  were,  hurrying  piece-work,  monotonous  reduplication  of  the  selfsame 
movements,  stooped  over,  sitting  postures,  and  the  evident  tension  under 
which  persons  were  engaged.  In  addition,  boxes  were  the  only  seats  furnished 
in  some  places,  while  chairs  without  back  rests  were  more  often  the  rule  than 
otherwise.  The  workday  was  difficult  to  determine  in  some  places  (see  strip- 
ping) ,  but  the  following  was  about  the  average :  8  hours  in  5  places,  9  hours 
in  9  places,  and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  6.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour 
for  these  workers  in  10  places,  (insisted  upon  in  several  large  places),  about 
f  in  3  places,  and  J  hour  or  less  in  the  remaining  7.  Other  recess  periods  were 
observed  in  some  places,  but  this  was  more  or  less  left  to  the  individual's 
preference.  Some  plants  did  not  work  Saturday  afternoon,  others  worked 
until  3  p.  m.,  others  worked  throughout.  Inactivity  was  as  much  of  a  health- 
hazard  as  fatigue,  due  to  the  sedentary  character  of  the  work.  This  was  cir- 
cumvented in  a  number  of  places  by  requiring  the  employes  to  get  up  and  get 


287 

their  own  supplies  and  to  deliver  the  work  which  they  had  finished.  In  but  2 
places  had  enough  thought  been  given  to  the  subject  of  fatigue  and  inactivity  to 
enable  investigators  to  grade  these  two  features  as  negligible.  The  liability  to 
contracting  coinm<unicable  diseases  was  marked  in  some  15  plants,  due,  es- 
pecially, to  close  crowding  together  of  large  numbers  of  workers  irrespective 
of  the  amount  of  room  space  in  the  quarters.  Thus,  it  was  common  to  find 
a  hundred  or  more  girls  all  bunched  together  in  a  third  of  the  room  which  was 
not  any  too  large  to  safely  accommodate  them  all,  were  they  spread  out  to 
cover  the  space.  Other  features  were  about  as  already  described  imder  the 
head  of  Stripping.  In  this  work  also  tobacco  was  more  frequently  handled 
by  different  persons  at  short  intervals  than  in  probably  any  other  process. 
Biting  of  the  ends  of  the  cigars  and  moistening  the  wrappers  in  the  mouth  was 
a  common  observation,  although  signs  were  often  present  forbidding  it.  It  was 
said  that  it  was  impossible  to  break  old  workers  of  the  habit,  but  new  ones 
were  not  allowed  to  acquire  this  habit.  There  was  no  evidence  of  efficient 
medical  supervision  in  any  of  the  places  investigated,  so  that,  as  stated  else- 
where, consumptive  persons  or  others  with  commuicable  diseases  might  be 
present  for  long  periods  in  the  midst  of  the  other  workers.  In  this  connection 
it  is  well  to  call  attention  to  the  vital  statistics  mentioned  under  the  heading 
of  Tobacco  Manufacturing  in  Part  IV.  The  hazard  of  poisoning  from 
tobacco  was  the  same  as  elsewhere  in  this  industry  —  the  workers  were  con- 
stantly handling  the  tobacco,  a  fine  dust  was  present,  tobacco  vapors  filled  the 
air,  while  those  who  did  biting  and  lip  moistening  got  the  juices.  The  ad- 
hesive was  gum  tragacanth  and  licorice.  Workers'  faces  were  often  very  close 
to  the  work,  particularly  in  the  case  of  shortsighted  workers.  The  industrial 
inducement  to  stimidantism  seemed  negligible  in  3  places,  but  in  all  of  the 
balance  there  was  a  considerable  incentive  to  the  same  because  of  the  depress- 
ing influences  of  such  hazards  as  fatigue,  inactivity,  tobacco  dust,  juice  and 
odor,  and  unventilated  working  rooms.  The  general  appearance  of  the  workers 
in  this  division  of  the  industry  was  somewhat  better  than  in  most  of  the  other 
processes,  principally  because  a  large  majority  was  young  persons,  although 
many  unhealthy  looking  individuals  were  seen.  Many  were  seen  to  wear  eye- 
shades.  Shortsightedness  was  also  common.  The  chief  complaints  of  the 
workers  were  fatigue,  nausea,  loss  of  appetite,  dyspepsia,  and  other  digestive 
disturbances,  headaches,  dizziness,  nervousness,  palpitation,  and  a  higher  rate 
of  female  complaints  than  the  average  (particularly  menorrhagia).  Workers 
and  officials  also  stated  that  they  were  bothered  a  great  deal  worse  on  first 
entering  the  work  than  later,  showing  that  they  were  living  in  a  state  of 
toleration  (see  discussion  in  Parts  II.  and  III.).  It  was  said  that  num- 
bers of  new  employes  never  came  back  after  the  first  day,  and  that  in  other 
places  sickness  was  so  common  that  very  few  averaged  a  month  of  steady 
work  on  account  of  the  same.  A  number  of  workers  also  complained  of  to- 
bacco dust  as  irritating  the  nose  and  eyes.  While  our  investigators  interviewed 
a  very  small  number  of  persons  they  reported  the  following  instances  which 
were  very  probably  occupational  in  character :  tuberculosis,  4  cases ;  "tobacco 
heart",  several  cases;  myopia,  several  cases.  Comments.  —  In  view  of  the 
high  death  rate  from  consumption  among  this  class  of  workers  everything 
possible  should  be  done  to  mitigate  against  the  hazards  above  mentioned,  all  of 
which  are  more  or  less  predisposing  to  this  disease.  Unquestionably  new 
employes  should  be  accepted  only  after  a  physical  examination  and  all  cases  of 


288 

sickness  should  ibe  investigated  by  a  physician  to  determine  to  what  extent 
any  of  the  various  hazards  may  have  been  responsible  in  whole  or  in  part  for 
the  illness.  Particularly,  should  means  be  taken  to  artificially  ventilate  this 
class  of  workrooms  where  such  large  numbers  are  employed  for  hours  at  a 
time.  If  this  process  could  be  done  out-of-doors,  there  would  be  a  very  dif- 
ferent tale  to  tell  in  listing  the  types  of  sickness  and  the  ultimate  causes  of 
death.  Lip  moistening  of  the  ends  of  cigars  should  be  discouraged  more  be- 
cause of  its  affecting  the  health  of  the  worker  rather  than  danger  to  smokers 
afterward,  since  the  interval  elapsing  between  the  manufacture  and  sale  of  the 
cigars  is  much  more  than  an  hour  or  so  in  most  cases  (which  is  probably  the 
longest  period  that  any  infectious  agent  could  survive  the  natural  drying 
effects  of  the  air). 

TOBACCO.  MISCELLAXEOUS    PROCESSES. 

CLEANING,  CASING,  DIPPING  AND  WRINGING.  —  Tobacco  was 
dumped  from  boxes  onto  the  floor,  where  men  shook  it  up  with  pitchforks,  and 
girls  picked  out  the  stems.  A  great  deal  of  dust  was  created,  but  the  process 
was  found  to  be  well  taken  care  of  with  efficient  hoods  in  2  large  places.  The 
tobacco  leaf  was  then  forked  onto  endless  belts  which  ran  through  steam 
chambers,  which  cleaned  and  "cased"  it.  From  here  the  tobacco  went  to  the 
dipping  machines  where  it  passed  through  a  flavoring  solution.  It  next  passed 
through  wringers  which  removed  the  excess  "dip".  In  these  latter  wet  proc- 
esses, quarters  were  well  taken  care  of  and  no  hazards  outside  of  the  odor, 
vapors,   and   handling   of   tobacco   appeared   present. 

COOKING  AND  MIXING  DIP  FOR  TOBACCO.  — This  work  was 
done  by  men  and  was  a  continuous  process,  the  twenty-four  hours  being  divided 
into  two  long  shifts.  The  dip  consisted  of  a  solution  of  licorice,  glycerine, 
sugar,  rum  and  alcohol.  The  steam  from  kettles  was  all  removed  by  hoods 
and  exhausts.    There  appeared  to  be  no  hazard. 

TOBACCO  ORDERING.. —  This  consisted  in  the  rehandling  and  adding 
flavoring  preparations  to  tobacco  which  was  not  yet  up  to  the  standard.  It 
was  .found  to  employ  a  small  number  of  men. 

TOBACCO  SIZING  OR  SORTING.  — The  sorting  of  tobacco  leaves 
is  a  common  process  in  the  industry,  and  employed  a  considerable  number  of 
persons  of  both  sexes.  Constant  standing  was  the  rule.  The  work  was 
monotonous,  and  complaints  of  indigestion,  palpitation  and  headache  were 
quite  common.  Many  of  the  girls  so  employed  complained  of  nervousness 
and  a  few  were  anemic.  They  were  affected  most  during  the  first  few  days 
of  work. 

SIEVING.  —  To  remove  dirt,  pebbles,  etc.,  from  cheaper  grades  of  to- 
bacco, it  was  subjected  to  shaking  and  sieving  processes  in  a  boxed-up  machine. 
The  work  was  done  only  a  few  times-  a  week  even  in  large  plants,  but  was 
very  dusty. 

SWEATING. —  Tobacco  was  subjected  to  hot  moistening  processes  in 
closely  confined  rooms  where  the  heat  was  considerable,  and  ammonia  fumes 
were  plainly  detectable.  Workers  were  only  required  to  be  in  here  a  short 
time. 

PLUG  TOBACCO  PRESSING. —  This  was  a  machine  process,  along 
with  applying  the  tin  foil,  tags,  boxing  and  nailing.  There  appeared  to  be  no 
health-hazard  present.     Piece-work  was  the  rule. 


289 

MIXING.  —  Mixing  of  chewing  and  smoking  tobacco  emploj-ecl  about 
an  even  number  of  both  sexes,  and  was  very  dusty.  The  girls  stood  up  as  well 
as  the  men.     There  were  many  anemic  looking  ones  among  them. 

PACKING  CHEWING  AND  SMOKLNG  TOBACCO. —  This  employed 
a  large  number  of  girls  and  a  few  men.  Standing  was  the  rule.  The  chairs 
provided  were  without  backs  and  were  few  in  number.  The  work  was  piece- 
work. Ventilation  and  light  were  not  good  in  the  places  investigated.  Many 
of  the  girls  were  anemic,  very  nervous,  and  were  unable  to  work  steadily.  New 
workers  were  usually  sick  in  the  first  few  days,  while  one  official  said  there 
was  no  question  that  numbers  of  the  girls  were  tobacco  poisoned.  A  neighbor- 
hood physician  in  I  place  commented  upon  the  number  of  heart  cases  (tobacco 
hearts),  female  disorders,  and  anemia  which  he  had  treated  among  tobacco 
packers.  It  was  also  his  observation  that  they  stood  anaesthetics  very  poorly 
in  case  of  surgical  operations.  It  was  found  that  the  girls  were  handling  moist 
tobacco,  their  hands  were  stained  with  the  same,  and  that  probably  absorption 
from  the  skin  took  place. 

TOBACCO  MACHINE  PROCESSES.  —  Besides  the  making  of  plug 
tobacco,  the  weighing,  sacking,  putting  in  paper  covers  and  tin  foil,  tagging 
and  labeling,  was  done  largely  by  machinery.  It  employed  a  large  number  of 
workers,  about  4/5  of  whom  were  females.  As  with  most  routine  machine 
work,  it  was  monotonous  piece-work.  Most  of  the  workers  stood  up,  and 
such  seats  as  were  furnished  seldom  had  backs.  Workers  were  also  crowded 
together,  irrespective  of  the  general  room  space  in  2  places,  while  natural  light 
was  poor.  In  1  place,  however,  the  general  ventilation  of  quarters  was  ex- 
cellent, due  to  the  installation  of  blower  systems  and  exhausts. 

PACKING  CIGARS.  —  This  is  done  mostly  by  men,  although  in  1  place 
women  were  employed  at  it  exclusively.  Good  daylight  was  required,  since  it 
was  necessary  to  select  the  different  shades,  shapes  and  sizes  very  carefully. 
This  was  the  most  skilled  process  in  the  tobacco  industry,  and  the  workers 
were  well  paid.  Hazards  were:  constant  standing,  piece-work,  eye-strain, 
handling  tin  foil  (always  a  danger  of  its  containing  lead),  and  the  odors  and 
vapors  from  tobacco,  as  well  as  the  handling  of  the  same.  Complaints  were 
few,  but  consisted  of  headache,  dyspepsia,  and  other  forms  of  indigestion,  a 
part  of  which  may  have  been  due  to  leaning  again  the  work  tables  with  the 
stomach. 

BANDING,  BRANDING,  AND  LABELING  CIGARS.  — This  work 
was  done  usually  by  young  girls.  It  was  day  work  on  fine  cigars,  but  piece-work 
on  other  qualities.  Many  of  them  put  the  labels  to  their  lips  to  moisten  them. 
They  also  handled  tin  foil.     (See  also  Gluing,   Pasting  and  Labeling.) 

SALT. 

The  one  salt  works  investigated  employed  about  150  wage-earners  at  the 
time  of  our  investigator's  visit,  of  whom  all  but  15  were  males.  The  females 
were  engaged  solely  in  packing.  The  workers  were  of  a  fairly  intelligent  type 
add  appeared  to  be  kept  fairly  steadily  at  the  plant.  There  were  no  efforts 
made  along  the  lines  of  health  conservation  in  relation  to  the  work,  no  health 
placards,  lockers  or  change  rooms,  while  washing  facilities  were  exceedinly 
meager,  and  toilets  only  fair.  There  were  a  few  hoods  over  some  processes. 
The  workday   was   divided   into   two   shifts   of   12   hours   each   for   all   except   a 

19      O.    D. 


290 

few  of  the  general  labor,  arid  the  females.  The  process  workers  were  divided 
as  follows:  open  evaporation,  3;  vacuum  evaporation,  2;  drying,  2;  packing, 
15  men  and  15  women ;  while  the  balance  were  general  laborers,  coopers,  etc. 

The  plant  was  composed  of  several  buildings  and  covered  much  ground. 
In  the  open  evaporating  process  humidity  was  considerable  from  steam  off  of 
the  pans,  while  the  hoods  present  were  not  efficient.  At  times  one  could  hardly 
see  across  the  room.  One  worker  complained  of  frequent  colds  during  winter. 
In  the  vacuum  drying  process  there  was  considerable  heat,  the  effect  of  which 
was  more  marked  since  the  men  were  constantly  exposed  during  a  12-hour 
shift.  Packing  v\'as  done  by  girls,  largely,  who  worked  piece-work,  and  were 
on  their  feet  practical!}^  all  day.  The  dry  process,  where  the  salt  was  died  by 
hot  air  over  a  revolving  cylinder,  was  also  pretty  warm,  although  workers 
were  only  occasionally  exposed.  Comments.  —  There  was  no  exposure  to 
poisons  so  far  as  could  be  ascertained.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  those  who 
grind  and  pack  salt  are  subject  to  perforation  of  the  nasal  septum,  due  to  the 
irritation  of  fine  salt  dust  upon  the  mucous  membrane.  Nose-bleed  is  a  warn- 
ing sign.  This  condition  has  been  reported  among  the  workers  at  St.  Clair, 
Michigan. 

BROOM    MAKING. 

The  making  of  brooms  and  brushes  was  investigated  in  10  establishments 
in  the  state  employing  a  total  of  86  wage-earners,  of  whom  all  but  4  were 
men.  These  four  (girls)  did  sorting  of  broom  straws.  The  largest  plant  seen 
employed  but  13  persons.  There  were  no  unions.  The  general  attitude  toward 
employes  •  appeared  quite  indifferent  in  about  half  of  the  plants,  although  the 
retention  at  the  trade  and  the  type  of  workers  was  good  in  a  total  of  8 
places.  The  trade  was  said  to  be  dull  "winter  and  summer"  in  some  places.-  In 
5  places  health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  and  blower  systems  over  the 
seed  stripping  machines,  were  present  and  quite  efficient  in  4  of  them.  The 
work  was  largely  of  skilled  nature.  The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  to 
show  that  there  were  40  (or  a  little  over  half)  over  40  years  of  age,  and  only 
4  under  20.  Work  quarters  were  hygienically  constructed  in  3  places,  fairly  so 
in  another,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6.  Often  lofts  or  barn-like  structures 
were  used  which  were  very  imperfectly  heated  in  the  winter  season.  In  half  of 
the  places  the  various  processes  of  stripping,  bleaching,  sorting,  dyeing,  and 
millwork  were  all  carried  on  in  the  same  room. 

Broom  corn  dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  was  bad  in  4  places,  fairly 
so  in  another,  but  quite  negligible  in  the  remaining  5.  Only  3  places  were 
cleaned  up  and  swept  daily.  The  others  were  very  dirty.  Quarters  were  not 
well  lighted  in  4  of  the  10  places,  but  general  room  ventilation  appeared  good 
in  all  except  1  place.  The  open  structure  of  the  sheds  in  which  the  work  was 
done  in  most  places  made  ventilation  good.  Fatigue  was  the  principal  hazard 
in  the  process  and  was  considered  bad  in  3  places,  and  fairly  so  in  all  the  re- 
maining. The  chief  features  were  hurrying  piece-work,  monotonous  applica- 
tion, constant  standing,  speeding  up,  long  hours,  more  or  less  constant  strain, 
faulty  postures,  jarring  pocesses  upon  machines,  and,  for  some,  pressure 
against  the  person  and  loud  noises.  The  workday  was  8J  hours  in  2  places, 
9  to  10  hous  in  6  places,  and  12  hours  in  the  remaining  2,  while  the  noon 
recess  was  only  f  hour  in  8  places.  The  next  hazard  was  the  liability  to  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases  which  was  present  in  all  places,  and  was  bad 
ip  half  of  them.     The  reasons   for  this  were  the  tendency  to  crowd  workers 


291  ' 

together,  the  use  of  common  towels  and  drinking  cups,  of  very  poor  or  absent 
wash-places  and  toilets,  spitting  upon  the  floxsrs,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and 
the  risks  from  cuts  and  injuries  to  the  eyes  and  from  flying  particles.  There 
was,  of  course,  no  medical  supervision  in  these  small  plants.  The  poisons  used 
were  found  to  be  sulphur  dioxide  and  chlorine  used  in  bleaching  processes,  with 
little  risk.  A  weak  solution  of  anilin  dye  was  used  for  staining,  and  appeared 
harmless.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  influenced  by  the 
fatigue  factor,  the  dust  and  the  uninviting  surroundings.  Beer  was  "allowed 
A.  M.  and  P.  M."  in  1  place. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  good  in  6  places,  while  in  the  re- 
maining, 1  or  more  pale  and  anemic  persons  were  seen.  The  workers  had  no 
complaints  to  make  (as  is  the  rule  in  most  small  places  which  are  more  or  less 
mutually  managed).  Comments.  —  The  hazards  above  named  suggest  their 
own  corrections.  In  1  place,  wetting  of  the  broom  corn  the  night  before  greatly 
decreased  the  dust.  In  1  of  the  worst  places  a  consumptive  was  employed  for 
extra  help  because  he  was  only  able  to  work  part  of  the  time! 

STREET   CLEANING. 

At  about  six  o'clock  one  evening  two  of  our  investigators  came  upon  a 
group  of  10  or  12  men  in  one  of  our  large  cities,  busily  engaged  in  sweeping 
with  push  brooms  on  a  principal  street.  They  were  without  any  protection 
from  the  dust,  either  through  previous  sprinkling  of  the  thoroughfare,  or  by 
the  wearing  of  respirators.  Also  pedestrians,  open  windows  and  doors  in  the 
vicinity,  and  the  occupants  and  contents  of  buildings  had  no  protection  from 
the  immense  clouds  of  dust  which  were  raised.  This  is  a  travesty  upon  society's 
care  of  itself,  and  serves  to  show  that  while  there  is  agitation  for  employers 
and  employes,  to  improve  conditions  of  industrial  and  personal  hygiene,  the 
public  administration  permits  wanton  violations  of  the  first  principles  of 
hygiene.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  for  workers  as  well  as  "innocent  bystand- 
ers" such  primitive  methods  of  street  cleaning  should  be  dispensed  with. 

DINING  CARS. 

During  the  course  of  the  survey,  investigation  was  made  of  4  railway 
dining  car  kitchens.  Arrangements  in  cars  .of  three  dififerent  makes  were 
practically  the  same.  The  chief  hazard  was  the  exposure  to  extreme  heat. 
This  seemed  to  be  as  marked  as  that  for  furnacemen  or  mill  hands  in  an  iron 
and  steel  works,  particularly  in  the  warmer  seasons  of  the  year.  There  were 
3  men  employed  in  the  kitchen,  including  the  chief  cook  and  2  helpers,  and  one 
in  the  butler's  pantry,  the  latter  located  between  the  kitchen  and  the  dining 
quarters.  Serving  windows  connected  this  pantry  with  the  kitchen,  and  while 
the  train  was  in  motion,  a  considerable  amount  of  heat  from  the  kitchen 
passed  through  into  this  pantry.  Various  warming  ovens  also  added  to  the 
temperature.  This  worker,  however,  was  usually  not  nearly  so  much  exposed 
to  the  temperature  hazard  as  those  in  the  kitchen.  In  all  of  these  cars  there 
were  exhaust  fans  located  in  the  ventilators  in  the  side  of  the  roof.  In  2 
instances  they  were  not  operating,  although  the  weather  was  very  w^arm.  One 
was  out  of  order,  while  it  was  said  in  the  other  case  that  it  had  been  taken  out 
for  repairs  at  some  considerable  lime  before  and  not  returned.  Some  of  the 
kitchens  had  two  of  these  suction    fans,  the  others  only  one.     When  present. 


292 

they    unquestionably    helped    materially    by    promoting    ventilation    and    sucking 
out  the  heated  air.     The  motion  of  the  train  also  assisted  in  this. 

The  temperature  is  favored  by  a  number  of  factors.  First,  there  are  the 
hot  stoves  and  ovens  extending  along  one  side  of  the  narrow  kitchen  for  a 
distance  of  about  12  feet,  and  heated  by  coal,  coke  or  charcoal.  These  are 
equipped  with  heat  confining  hoods  which  come  down  about  to  the  level  of  the 
head  or  a  little  lower.  Up  beneath  the  hoods  are  located  shelves  and  cabinets 
for  warming  purposes.  Second,  the  space  between  '  the  stoves  and  the  sinks, 
tables  and  cabinets  opposite  is  so  narrow  (only  a  matter  of  about  3  feet)  that 
the  3  men  are  kept  very  close  to  the  main  source  of  heat.  Third,  the  roof 
overhead  is  practically  full  of  obstructive  piping  and  two  long  horizontal  tanks, 
one  containing  hot  water,  which  was  not  covered  with  insulation  or  other  pro- 
tective covering  and  consequently  helps  to  add  in  the  heating  of  the  quarters. 
The  other  is  the  cold  water  tank  which,  however,  from  its  close  proximity  to  the 
other  tank,  and  location  over  the  ovens,  usually  gets  hot  and  further  helps  to 
radiate  heat.  Fourth,  where  the  road-beds  are  at  all  dusty,  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  windows  practically  closed,  and,  on  account  of  railroad  smoke,  the 
same  applies  to  the  narrow  window  ventilators  in  the  roof.  It  was  also  stated 
that  orders  were  issued  prohibiting  the  opening  of  the  door  into  the  vestibule, 
this  due  to  several  reasons  such  as  the  liability  of  passengers  to  mistake  the 
entrance  into  the  kitchen  for  the  entrance  into  the  dining  car,  the  desire  for 
privacy  for  the  workers,  the  liability  of  theft,  etc.  In  one  instance  this  door 
contained  a  screened  window  which  helped  a  little  in  promoting  ventilation, 
but  it  was  too  small  and  placed  too  high  (on  a  level  with  the  head).  Other- 
wise, the  vestibule  was  closed  up  solidly.  Fifth,  the  window  spaces  (on  one  side 
only)  when  open,  were  so  small,  narrow  and  high  placed  that  they  could  admit 
but  very  little  air,  and  the  screen  meshing  used  was  so  fine 'that  this  also 
hindered  greatly.  It  was  also  pointed  out  that  in  the  case  of  a  wreck  these 
men  were  likely  to  be  caught  in  quarters  from  which  they  could  not  escape 
because  of  the  jamming  of  the  only  doorway  present,  and  the  fact  that  the 
window  openings  were  too  small  for  a  man  to  get  out  of,  at  least  until  the 
sashes  could  be  shattered  to  enlarge  the  openings.  '  Sixth,  a  "turn"  in  the 
kitchen  required  from  two  to  four  hours,  according  to  the  number  of  dining 
car  "calls",  and  the  number  of  passengers  to  be  served.  During  this  time  all 
workers  were  constantly  busy,  and  usually  in  considerable  hurry  so  that 
respites  were  few.  Seventh,  workers  were  under  orders  not  to  leave  kitchens 
during  these  "turns".  —  It  can  be  seen  from  the  above  that  all  of  these  factors 
combined  to  render  the  exposure  to  high  temperature  in  a  crowded  and  air- 
stagnant  space  very  great.  Workers  (both  colored  and  white)  made  great 
complaiint  of  the  heat,  which,  in  addition  to  profuse  perspiration  (which  was 
literally  pouring  from  all  of  them),  caused  suffusion  and  heat  dermatitis  of  the 
face  and  the  skin  of  the  arms,  and  blood-shot  eyes,  and  unquestionably  affected 
the  eyesight,  particularly  of  the  chief  cook  who  necessarily  had  his  face  toward 
the  ovens  the  greater  part  of  the  time.  Wearing  of  protecting  glasses  was  im- 
practicable because  of  soiling  with  perspiraiton,  smoke  and  steam.  In  one 
kitchen  a  thermometer  which  the  investigator  carried  registered  135°,  at  the 
level  of  the  head  and  in  the  position  which  the  cook  occupied.  Perspiration 
also  dropped  constantly  from  arms,  face  and  head  upon  whatever  was  below, 
oftentimes   including  the   food  being  prepared.     The  impossibility  of  taking  a 


293 

bath  after  each   ''turn''  and  the  wearing  of   sweaty  underclothes   out  into   the 
draft  afterwards  were  both  arch  health-hazards. 

Comments,. — ^  While  heat  is  a  necessary  function  of  cooking,  and  some- 
what of  the  kitchen  itself,  it  seems  that  the  condition  is  about  as  extreme  in 
dining  cars  as  in  any  process  investigated.  Unquestionably,  permission  should 
be  given  to  open  doorways,  while,  in  addition  to  exhaust  fans  (more  of 
them  and  placed  in  unmolested  sites),  two  or  three  blow  fans  should  be 
placed  in  the  corners  of  the  kitchen  to  whip  up  the  atmosphere  and  promote 
evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  skin.  It  would  appear  that  a  ventilating 
engineer  could  devise  means  to  more  effectively  control  this  situation. 

LIME  BURNING. 

The  process  of  manufacturing  lime  or  "lime  burning"  was  investigated  in 
7  establishments  located  in  6  different  communities  in  the  state  and  employing 
a  total  of  188  workers  at  this  process  alone.  The  balance  of  help  was  variously 
engaged  in  the  quarries,  Gas  Production  plants,  cooperage^  etc.  There  were  no 
unions  among  the  workers,  while  the  work  was  very  largely  of  unskilled 
nature.  A  fairly  large  percentage  of  foreigners  and  some  negroes  were  found 
employed.  The  majority  of  the  workers  were  of  a  changing  character.  In 
only  one  place  was  a  blower  system  present  to  limit  the  amount  of  dust.  To 
kiln  men  there  was  considerable  danger  from  inhaling  carbonic  acid  gas  as 
well  as  some  sulphur  fumes.  A  very  risky  feature  was  that  of  the  workman's  on 
top  of  the  kiln  getting  down  into  same  to  attach  cables  to  cars,  accidentally 
fallen  in.  Some  workers  tried  to  prevent  sore  feet  due  to  the  lime  by  buying 
high  shoes  and  ti'eing  the  pant  legs  about  them. 

The  following  is  taken  from  the  special  report  of  the  investigator  who 
visited  6  of  the  7  plants. 

"I.  Quarrying.  This  was  not  inspected,  but  work  is  done  in  same 
way  as  any  quarry,  except  no  attempt  is  made  to  save  large  stones.  Health- 
hazards  same  as  elsewhere. 

"2.  Loading  Kilns.  The  stone  is  placed  in  a  car  on  a  track  and 
drawn  by  cable  operated  from  top  of  kiln  platform.  The  kilns  are  open 
and  CO2  constantly  escape.  One  man  usually,  but  sometimes  two,  attend 
to  the  drawing  and  dumping  of  cars.  CO2  fumes  called  "dead  gas"  in 
kiln  talk  sometimes  affect  the  men  on  top  if  wind  blows  toward  them. 
Of  course  one  big  advantage  is  that  they  are  in  the  open.  Should  be  two 
men  always  in  case  one  should  be  overcome.  Could  not,  however,  find 
any  place  where  asphyxiation  had  occurred. 

"3.  Drawings  or  Unloading  the  Kilns.  The  limestone  (CaCOa) 
after  sufficient  burning  is  converted  into  lime  (CaO)  and  taken  out  from 
the  false  bottom  of  kiln.  There  are  several  ways  of  doing  this.  Some 
kilns  have  a  "scissors  opening"  with  short  handles ;  others  are  opened 
from  a  platform  above,  and  still  others  are  opened  from  below,  but  man 
stands  10  to  15  ft.  from  bottom.  The  lime  is  dropped  from  kiln  into 
wheelbarrows  or  carts.  Health-hazard  —  dust  raised  when  lime  drops 
from  kiln.  Man  gets  most  witli  "scissors"  type,  which  Necessitates  his 
being  close  to  dust.  Some  places  are  bad  because  wind  may  blow  from 
side  opposite  man  and  give  him  all  the  dust.  In  one  large  plant  the  men 
had  placed  old  pieces  of  tin  or  sheet  iron  over  the  opposite  side  of  the  pit. 


294 

No    goggles.      No    respirators,    the    rule.      Heat  —  not    much    hazard    in 
most  places. 

"4.  Grinding  and  Packing.  This  is  done  in  all  plants,  but  is,  of 
qourse,  aside  from  lime  manufacture.  The  lumps  of  lime  after  cooling 
on  a  floor  space  are  taken  to  mill  and  ground  to  powder.  This  is  then 
sacked  by  machinery.  Health-hazard  —  dust  is  very  bad.  Air  is  dense  in 
some  places.  In  only  one  place  was  there  an  efficient  suction  system,  and 
here  president  of  company  stated  that  the  saving  of  lime  collected  paid 
very  good  interest  on  the  money  invested  in  blower  system.  Skin  irrita- 
tions, especially  in  summer,  and  frequent  eye  inflammations  complained 
of.  Goggles  were  furnished  but  few  worn;  respirators  also  furnished  but 
none  worn.     Few  men  used  handkerchiefs  over  mouths. 

"Worst  features: 

1.  Ignorant   foreigners,   the   rule. 

2.  No  wash  places. 

3.  Poor  outside  toilets. 

4.  No  health  appliances  except  in  one  plant., 

5.  General  "Don't  Care"  attitude  of  those  in  authority  in  most  places. 

6.  The  general  idea  prevails  that  lime  dust  (that  is,  CaO)  is  a  good 
thing  to  inhale !  In  some  communities  certain  M.  D.'s  were  quoted 
to  this  effect.  Many  plants  had  men  who  were  decidedly  pale  and  a 
few  short  of  breath  only  since  entering  plant. 

7.  Skin  and  eye  irritation  very  common.  Much  worse  in  the  summer 
time. 

''Addenda.  —  Two  plants  visited  used  coal  to  burn  lime  while  others  made 
gas  with  producers,  —  the  usual  poke-hole  type.  To  soften  lime  or 
keep  down  heat,  steam  is  usually  injected  upon  the  limestone.  An- 
other process  associated  is  the  removal  of  soot  from  kiln  which  may 
be  needed  at  certain  intervals.  This  is  a  very  dusty  process  and  is 
usually  done  by  sfeam." 

The  workday  was  10  hours  in  6  plants  and  12  hours  in  1,  the  noon  recess 
being  1  hour  in  3  places,  ^  hour  in  another,  and  "no  regular"  in  the  remaining 
3.  Night  shift  work  was  the  rule  in  3  plants.  The  industrial  inducement  to 
alcoholism  was  considerable  in  all  places,  due  to  the  breathing  of  lime  dust 
and  the  depressing  influences  recited  above.  In  some  places  the  men  lived  in 
shacks  behind  kilns.  It  was  said  that  men  remained  the  shortest  time  at  the 
loading  process.  Comments.  —  It  would  appear  that  if  an  exhaust  system  were 
so  efficient  for  a  certain  work  in  one  plant,  the  same  should  be  installed  for 
similar  work  in  all  the  plants.  It  is  quite  evident  also  that  considerable  atten- 
tion should  be  given  to  finding  means  toward  cutting  down  the  other  health 
hazards  mentioned.  Particularly  would  we  emphasize  good  washing  facilities, 
including  the  construction  of  a  simple  type  of  shower  bath. 

CEMENT. 

Cement  manufacturing  and  mixing  was  investigated  in  2  plants  employing 
a  total  of  96  men.  The  work  was  found  to  be  very  dusty  and  dirty  and  the 
quarters    in    one    place    very    seldom    cleaned.      The    dust  was    composed    of 


295 

cetnent,  lime,  silica,  and  powdered  coal,  and  there  was  practically  no  method 
of  controlling  it.  Heat  was  intense  for  some  of  the  workers,  and  there  was 
practically  no^  protection  against  it.  Hours  were  also  very  long  (IS  hours  per 
day).  There  was  great  opportunity  for  contracting  conmnunicable  diseases 
because  of  promiscuous  spitting,  absence  of  cuspidors,  poor  closet  facilities,  and 
the  dust  flying  about.  It  was  noted  that  the  cement  dust  tended  to  cake  in  the 
nose,  and  the  superintendent  in  one  plant  said  this  kept.it  out  of  the  lungs! 
The  pulverizing  of  coal  so  filled  he  air  with  dust  in  1  place  that  the  workmen 
could  hardly  be  seen.  About  the  same  conditions  existed  in-  the  dry  grinding 
of  the  cement  and  in  the  sacking  department.  Our  investigator  stated  that  he 
had  never  seen  so  much  dust  flying  around  in  any  plant.  The  vegetation  in 
the  neighborhood  was  covered  likewise  with  powdered  cement.  It  seemed  to  be 
the  belief  among  the  officials  and  workers  (as  was  also  stated  for  lime)  that  this 
dust  was  healthy  to  breathe !  There  were  no  change  rooms,  showers,  lockers, 
or  eating  places  for  the  employes,  while  washing  facilities  were  practically 
absent  in  both  places,  and  toilets  very  primitive. 

BRICK    AND  TILE. GRINDING   AND    MIXING. 

The  grinding  and  mixing  of  clay  for  the  manufacture  of  brick  and  sewer 
pipe  (tile),  was  investigated  in  connection  with  9  establishments,  in  7  city 
communities,  where  67  workers  were  found  employed  at  this  process.  In  all 
cases  the  clays  were  obtained  from  a  pit  at  or  near  the  works,  and  conveyed  by 
small   cars  to  the  mixing  and  grinding  quarters. 

This  part  of  the  work  was  done  in  openly  constructed  buildings  in  small 
places,  but  inside  in  larger  plants.  There  were  no  vmions.  A  fairly  intelligent 
type  of  employes  was  engaged  in  all  except  two  large  plants  where  few  could 
speak  English.  Their  steadiness  at  the  work  varied  greatly.  In  all  places  the 
work  was  quite  limited  to  the  open  season.  In  2  instances,  health  appliances, 
such  as  cool-air  blowers  and  boxed-in  chutes  were  present,  the  latter  greatly 
limiting  the  dust.  In  fact,  in  one  of  these  places  the  air  was  free  of  dust  and 
the  quarters  were  as  clean  as  any  well  kept  factory.  Five  of  the  total  number 
of  workers  were  over  40  years  of  age. 

The  chief  objectionable  features  to  this  process,  from  a  health  point  of 
view,  were  the  breathing  of  clay  dust,  and  the  red  coloring  compound  often 
mixed  with  it,  the  dirt  under  foot,  the  dampness,  and,  for  cooler  weather,  the 
absence  of  heating  arrangements,  all  of  which  were  fair  to  bad  hazards.  In 
2  places,  the  work  was  housed-in  so  that  the  light  was  poor,  and  a  similar 
condition  existed  for  ventilation  in  2  places.  In  1  place  the  mixing  machine  was 
so  close  to  a  kiln  that  workers  were  affected  by  the  heat.  In  all  places  there 
was  a  moderate  risk  of  over-fatigue,  not  so  much  from  laborous  work,  which 
was  not  the  rule,  but  from  monotonous  application,  constant  standing,  and  the 
loud  noise  from  the  grinding  machine.  The  workday  was  10  hours  in  all 
except  1  place,  where  workers  usually  quit  at  the  end  of  about  9  hours.  In 
some  places  a  unit  production  was  aimed  at,  and  this  determined  the  workday. 
The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  3  places,  3  hour  in  1,  and  §•  hour  or  "as 
desired"  in  the  remainder.  The  liability  to  contracting  coinniiiinicable  diseases 
was  bad  in  all  places,  except  1,  due  to  promiscuous  spitting  into  the  dried-up 
clay  dust  under  foot,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  absence  of  washing  facilities 
(at  all  places,  large  and  small),  and  the  very  primitive  closet  arrangements  in 


296 

small  places.  However,  the  out-door  character  of  the  work  in  most  places 
mitigated  against  this  hazard.  The  risk  of  contracting  hookworm  disease  was 
considerable  in  all  of  these  places,  due  to  the  prijuitiveness-  of  sanitary 
arrangements,  both  here  and  at  the  clay  banks,  and  the  liability  that  a  person 
with  the  disease  might  secure  employment  and  infect  the  soil.  The  industrial 
inducement  to  alcoholisin  was  considerable  in  most  instances,  due  to  the  dusty 
and  sloppy  character  of  the  work,  and,  in  several  instances,  the  uninviting 
character  of  the  drinking  water  supply. 

The  general  appearances  of  these  workers  as  to  health  were  good  in 
about  3/5  of  instances,  while  none  were  seen  who  were  decidedly  sickly  ap- 
pearing. The  dust  and  dampness,  and  inability  to  keep  clean  were  the  only 
comments  made  by  the  workers  themselves.  Coinments.  —  These  workers,  as 
well  as  the  rest  of  those  in  brick  and  tile  works,  should  be  provided  with 
proper  toilets,  washing  places,  and  drinking  facilities,  because  of  the  risk  of 
typhoid  fever,  as  well  as  hookworm  disease.  Workers  predisposed  to  lung 
troubles  should  not  engage  in  any  part  of  the  brick  industry.  For  certain  in- 
tervals of  very  dusty  work,  the  workers  should  put  on  respirators.  There 
should  be  present  good  first-aid  equipments  for  minor  injuries  as  well  as  major 
accidents.  Grinding  and  mixing  processes  everywliere  could  be  rendered  entirely 
dustless  for  the  places  in  which  the  workers  are  required  to  remain,  as  was 
seen  at  one  plant. 

BRICK  AND  TILE.  PRESS  ROOMS. 

From  the  grinding  and  mixing  machines  the  clay  passes  directly  into  the 
presses,  as  a  rule,  where  the  brick  or  tile  pipe  (usually)  are  made  mechanicalty. 
■  The  pressing  process  was  investigated  in  9  establishments  in  7  com- 
munities, and  employed  200  men  (including  5  moulders,  and  4  "branch  men" 
m  two  sewer  pipe  establishments).  There  were  no  unions.  The  employers' 
interest  in  employes'  welfare  seemed  good  in  5  places,  but  quite  indifferent  in 
the  remaining  4.  The  general  type  of  workers  ranged  as  described  under 
Grinding  and  Mixing.  In  one  large  place  it  was  said  that  only  half  of  the  men 
remained  steadily,  and  that  the  remainder  changed  almost  weekly.  In  2 
places  health  appliances  existed,  such  as  cool-air  blasts  and  some  attempts  to 
limit  the  dust.  In  other  places  the  dust  and  dirt  accumulated  until  it  ob- 
structed locomotion  before  it  was  removed.  The  work  quarters  were  not  con- 
structed from  a  hygienic  viewpoint  in  any  but  one  of  the  plants.  In  several 
places  old  sheds  or  barns  were  used.  There  were  no  wash-places  anywhere, 
and  no  toilets  of  any  kind  in  3  places.  Two  other  places  had  good  inside 
toilets.  The  work  was  unskilled.  Age-grovip  estimations  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  over  50  years,  1 ;  between  40  and  50  years,  35 ;  under  40  years,  164. 
About  5%  of  the  latter  were  under  20  years. 

Dust,  from  the  drying  of  wet  clays  under  foot,  principally,  was  a  bad 
feature  in  3  places  and  fairly  so  in  3  others,  while  in  2  places  it  was  negligible, 
in  one  large  place  it  was  so  thick  in  the  air  that  one  could  see  scarcely  30 
feet.  There  was  not  enough  care  given  to  cleanliness  of  quarters  in  8  of  the 
plants.  In  6  of  the  9  places  the  work  was  damp  enough  to  be  a  hazard,  and 
workers  were  unable  to  keep  dry,  especially  with  the  forms  of  footwear  and 
clothing  used.  Quarters  were  not  well  lighted  in  2  instances.  Ventilation  was 
very  poor  in  1  place,  and  not  good  in  1  other,  due  to  confined  quarters.  The 
work  was  apt  to  be  cold  and   chilling  during  certain   seasons,   because  of  the 


297 

absence  of  any  heating  arrangements.  In  6  places  there  seemed  to  be  a  number 
of  factors  productive  of  fatigue.  In  descending  order  these  were  as  follows  : 
constant  standing  at  monotonous  work  in  faulty  postures ;  hurrying  piece-work 
with  evidences  in  some  places  of  speeding  up ;  and  loud  noises.  The  hours  also 
were  pretty  long  for  steady  application.  The  workday  was  about  10  hours  in 
all  places,  but  was  usually  regulated  by  the  unit  of  work  it  was  desired  to  turn 
out  during  the  day.  Occasionally,  by  extra  effort  and  no  mishaps  to  machin- 
ery, the  workers  were  finished  by  three  or  four  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  A 
noon  recess  of  1  hour  was  taken  in  3  places,  but  in  the  remaining  it  varied 
considerably,  and  apparently  no  regular  time  was  observed  in  some  places,  the 
attention  being  set  on  getting  the  day's  work  finished  as  soon  as  possible.  The 
liability  to  contracting  cominnnicable  diseases  was  greater  than  in  the  grinding 
and  mixing  quarters  and  due  to  the  same  causes  and  the  presence  of  a  greater 
number  of  persons  in  closer  contact.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism 
was  considerable  in  all  places,  due  to  the  same  features  as  mentioned  under 
Grinding  and  Mixing.  In  but  2  places  was  a  safe  drinking  water  supply  at 
hand,  and  here  common  cups  were  in  use.  In  many  instances  the  men  actually 
believed  that  the  breathing  of  clay  dust  was  healthful ! 

The  same  features  concerning  complaints  and  comments  obtained  as 
given  under   Grinding  and  Mixing. 

BRICK  AND  TILE. KILNS. 

In  9  establishments  visited  in  T  different  communities  there  were  116  men 
employed  in  settijig,  firing  and  drawing  the  kilns  of  brick  and  sewer  pipe 
works.  In  4  of  the  establishments  temporary  kilns  were  built  about  each  pile 
of  bricks.  The  2  sewer  pipe  works  had  permanent  kilns.  There  were  no 
unions  in  connection  with  this  process,  while  the  general  type  of  workers,  their 
retention  and  steadiness  did  not  differ  from  those  at  other  processes.  There 
were  no  appliances  which  could  be  considered  as  having  to  do  with  the  con- 
servation of  health,  nor  were  there  any  instructions  or  placards  in  this  direc- 
tion, nor  sick  benefit  associations.  The  work  was  unskilled.  Usually,  kilns 
were  entirely  by  themselves,  although  workers  sometimes  interchanged  to  other 
processes.  Age-group  estimations  for  the  kiln  men  showed  14  over  40  years, 
and  102  under  that  age. 

The  chief  hazards  of  this  process  were  exposure  to  Iieat,  alternating  with 
weather  conditions.  This  seemed  bad  in  3  places,  apd  some  hazard  in  all  of 
the  remaining.  It  depended  somewhat  upon  the  methods  of  drawing  the  kilns. 
In  some  places  workmen  were  put  upon  them  while  temperature  was  yet  ex- 
tremely hot.  In  one  place  premises  around  the  kilns  were  kept  very  neat  and 
clean.  As  elsewhere  in  this  industry,  fatigue  factors  were  present,  and  probably 
more  so  in  this  process  than  any  other.  Arranged  in  descending  order,  as 
nearly  as  possible,  these  were :  monotonous  application,  with  constant  standing 
for  long  periods,  hurrying  piece-work,  with  evidence  of  speeding  up;  laborious 
work  under  considerable  strain ;  pressure  against  the  body,  and  long  hours. 
The  workday  was  10  hours  in  1  place,  and  from  this  to  11  and  12  in  others, 
particularly  at  times.  All  burners  worked  in  two  12-hour  shifts.  The  noon 
recess  was  often  not  observed,  at  least  at  any  regular  period;  but  as  workers 
desired  they  took  time  off  to  eat.  This  was  so  in  6  of  the  8  places.  The 
liability  to   contracting  communicable  diseases  was  bad   in   all  places,  although 


2gS 

the  risk  of  contracting  hookworm  disease  seemed  less  than, for  other  workers'. 
The  causes  for  the  other  risks  were  the  same  as  described  under  Grinding 
and  Mixing.  There  was  some  danger  of  poisoning  from  the  inhalation  of 
kiln  gases  when  kihis  were  entered  before  they  were  sufficiently  cooled  and 
time  allowed  for  gases  to  escape.  There  was  no  evidence,  however,  of  person's 
having  become  asphyxiated  in  this  manner,  but  the  possibility  of  chronic 
poisoning  was  present.  All  glazing  was  done  by  the  addition  of  salt  and  not 
lead  compounds.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism'  was  considerable 
for  most  of  the  ^workers,  and  was  incited  chiefly  by  the  fatigue  hazard,  long 
hours,  hot,  dirty  work,  often  poor  drinking  water  facilities,  and  absence  of 
washing  and  bathing  arrangements. 

The  appearance  of  workers  was  generally  good  in  most  places,  while  in 
some  others  one  or  more  were  seen  who  complained  of  their  health,  or  ap- 
peared decidedly  under  good  physical  condition.  Comments.  —  This  is  a 
process- requiring  hard,  laborious  work,  at  intervals,  but  this  should  not  pro- 
claim it  necessarily  unhealthful,  provided  the  many  other  features  above 
mentioned  were  not  present  to  menace  the  health  of  the  workers. 

FILE  CUTTING. 

The  manufacture  of  files  was  investigated  in  4  establishments  in  which 
108  wage-earners,  all  males,  were  found  employed  at  the  process.  The  num- 
ber of  employes  ranged  from  7  to  54  in  each  establishment.  Some  machine 
cutting  of  files  was  done  in  2  establishments.  The  general  attitude  of  em- 
ployers toward  employes  appeared  good  in  all  places,  while  a  large  percentage 
of  the  workers  were  skilled  men  who  remained  well  at  the  respective  places  of 
employment.  There  were  no  special  devices  which  could  be  designated  as 
health  appliances  in  any  of  the  plants,  even  the  forges  in  a  large  plant  being 
without  hoods  and  vents.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was 
good  in  1  place,  fair  in  another,  and  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  2.  In 
the  smaller  places  there  was  an  intermixing  of  various  sub-processes,  as  forg- 
ing, grinding,  tempering,  and  cutting.  Age-group  estimations  summed  up  as 
follows:  over  50  years,  10;  from  40  to  50  years,  13;  under  40  years,  85.  Of 
the  last  group  about  5  per  cent  were  under  20  years. 

Dust  was  a  hazard  to  grinders  in  all  places,  although  the  principal  work 
was  done  in  the  wet  on  large  grindstones.  The  friction  heat  present,  however, 
with  the  flying  of  sparks,  caused  a  certain  amount  of  fine  dust  to  escape,  in 
spite  of  the  water.  There  were  a  number  of  unprotected  emery  wheels. 
Polishing  was  also  done  by  sand  blasts.  A  small  but  constant  amount  of 
dust  was  also  produced  during  cutting  which  always  contained  some  lead 
scraped  loose  from  the  "bed"  which  supported  the  file.  Workers'  faces  were 
also  quite  close  to  the  work.  None  of  the  places  visited  were  exemplary  in 
matters  of  cleanliness  and  order,  while  in  3  there  was  plenty  of  dirt  and 
waste  accumulations.  A  dirt  floor  was  present  in  1  place  located  in  basement- 
like quarters.  Dampness  was  a  feature  of  the  work  in  the  grinding  rooms, 
where  the  water  occasionally  escaped  from  the  grindstones  and  soaked  up  the 
floors.  The  lighting  of  quarters  was  good  in  2  places  and  poor  in  the  other  2, 
in  1  of  which  oil  lamps  were  depended  upon  for  the  principal  illumination. 
The  general  ventilation  of  quarters  was  fair  to  good.  The  ceilings  in  one 
place  were  scarcely  7   feet  high.     Contaminations  existed   from  heating  ovens, 


299 

forge  gases,  tempering  pots  and  annealing  furnaces,  and  from  crude  heating 
arrangements  in  2  places.  The  question  of  fatigue  is  not  debatable,  at  least 
for  the  skilled  workers.  There  is  an  unusual  amount  of  reduplication  of  the 
same  movements  and  monotony  in  the  hand-cutting  process  (from  continuous 
mallet  and  chisel  work)  and,  also  in  grinding,  with  the  assumption  of  awkward, 
stooped  postures  in  both  processes,  and  pressure  against  the  body.  It  is  es- 
timated that  the  cutter  strikes  45,000  blows  a  day  in  turning  out  his  quota  of 
fileS;  In  1  plant  practically  all  work  was  piece-work,  while  noise  was  ex- 
cessive from  trip-hammers.  The  workday  was  9  hours  in  the  smallest  place 
and  10  hours  in  the  other  3,  with  J  hour  for  a  noon  recess.  The  liability  to 
the  contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  considerable  in  all  places,  due  to 
the  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  promiscuous  spitting  upon  the  floors  and 
into  dust  and  dirt  accumulations,  the  absence  of  washing  facilities  in  2  places, 
poor  toilet  arrangements,  and  the  presence  of  dust  and  dirt  from  the  processes. 
The  liability  to  industrial  poisoning  was  considerable  for  the  hand-cutters 
where  soft  lead  plates  were  used  beneath  the  files  worked  upon,  due  to  the 
creation  of  a  fine  dust,  and  to  the  lack  of  personal  care  in  keeping  the  soiled 
fingers  away  from  the  lips.  Again,  in  the  lead  tempering  process  (part  of 
tempering  was  done  by  heating  in  charcoal  and  coke  and  then  immersing  in 
brine),  there  were  the  same  hazards  as  described  under  this  process  elsewhere. 
Chronic  or  slow  lead  poisoning  is  the  form  of  the  disease  most  likely  to  be 
present,  although  the  personal  factor  of  carelessness  might  produce  acute 
poisoning  in  a  short  space  of  time.  The  absence  or  inadequacy  of  washing 
facilities  is,  of  course,  a  most  important  feature  in  poisoning.  The  induce- 
ment to  industrial  alcoholism  would  appear  to  have  three  factors :  the  irritation 
of  the  respiratory  passages  from  the  fine  hot  dust  from  grinding,  the  slow  in- 
gestion of  particles  of  lead,  and  in  some  places  the  dirty  and  unkempt  sur- 
roundings. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  in  all  places ;  some,  however, 
appeared  prematurely  aged,  while  a  considerable  number  had  pyorrhea  (or 
diseased  gums)  along  with  decayed  teeth.  As  a  rule,  the  men  were  quite- 
satisfied  with  the  conditions  of  work,  although  some  complaints  were  made  of 
"rheumatism",  stiff  wrists,  while  1  man  said  he  had  seen  several  cases  of  wrist 
palsy.  These  were  undoubtedly  due  to  lead  poisoning  or  an  occupation-neurosis 
from  hammering.  In  another  place,  3  out  of  4  file  cutters  had  attacks  of  so- 
called  "typhoid  fever"  which  were  probably  lead  poisoning,  from  the  symptoms 
described.  Some  workers  complained  of  eye-strain,  and  1  showed  a  bilateral 
blepharitis  (inflammation  of  the  margins  of  the  eyelids)  which  was  due  to  the 
close  eye-work  required  in  both  grinding  and  cutting  in  poorly  lighted  quarters. 
Investigators  discovered  2  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  1  of  which  occurred  in  a 
lead  temperer. 

Comments.  —  Placards  of  instructions  to  employes  upon  "How  to  Pre- 
vent Lead  Poisoning"  should  be  posted  in  all  file  works,  hoods  should  be 
over  forges  and  lead  baths,  considerable  attention  should  be  given  to  light- 
ing, while  every  convenience  in  the  way  of  washing  facilities  and  a  place  to 
eat,  safe  from  the  danger  of  lead  poisoning,  should  be  provided.  In  some 
places  there  appeared  to  be  an  unnecessary  exposure  to  dust  from  grinding 
processes,  which  apparently  could  have  been  easily  equipped  with  a  blower 
system.  There  was  also  considerable  dangerous  machinery,  pulleys  and  unpro- 
tected belting  in  some  places.     Sir  Thomas   Oliver   (Great  Britain)    states  that 


300 

"the  death-rate  of  the  cutters  from  pulmonary  phthisis  (consumption)  and 
lead  poisoning  exceeds  the  mortality  standard  of  ordinary  occupied  males 
by  90  per  cent.,  and  after  35  years  of  age  it  is  still  higher."  File  cutting  by 
machinery  removes   part  of  the  hazards. 

IRON^   STEEL  AND  WIRE. GENERAL  STATEMENT. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  products  from  the  point  of  view  of 
health-hazards  is  practically  the  same  as  Furnacing,  Iron  Founding,  Machine 
Shopping,  and  General  Factory  Processes,  all  of  them,  however,  upon  a 
gigantic  scale.  The  hazards  are  the  same  in  type,  but  may  be  greater  in 
degree.  This  latter  factor  depends  largely  upon  whether  the  works  are  of 
modern  building  construction  and  the  processes  mechanical  and  automatic, 
or  whether  they  are  collections  of  crowded,  low  roofed  structures  in  which 
hand  methods  prevail.  It  may  be  said  that  because  of  competition  the 
adoption  of  mechanical  appliances  has  been  necessary  to  a  large  extent  in 
most  of  the  plants  which  are  to-day  doing  business.  However,  here-  and  there, 
even  in  the  larger  works,  hand  methods  in  health-hazardous  operations  have 
not  been  fully  substituted  by  mechanical  devices  where  they  might  be.  A 
very  much  smaller  number  of  wage-earners,  however,  are  exposed  to  these 
hazards   than   was   the   condition    some   years    ago. 

It  is  not  proposed  to  go  into  the  various  processes  of  this  industry  in 
any  detail  whatever.  This  has  been  efficiently  covered  for  Ohio  as  well  as 
other  states  in  the  "Report  on  Conditions  of  Employment  in  the  Iron  and 
Steel  Industry  in  the  United  States,"  Senate  Document  No.  110,  G2d  Cong., 
1st  Sess.  (1913),  and  particularly  Volume  III.  of  this  report.  In  the  same 
volume,  pages  510-532  (Appendix  F.)  is  given  a  very  good  description  of 
the  changes  in  methods  which  have  brought  about  greatly  improved  working 
conditions  during  the  years  between  1895  and  1910.  While  the  chief  hazards 
throughout  the  industry  are  recognized  as  exposure  to  intense  heat,  long  hours, 
laborious  work,  weather  exposure,  and  the  breathing  of  escaping  gases,  smoke 
and    fumes,   we  give   herewith   a   synopsis   of   the   chief    occupational   diseases: 

Occupational  Diseases  of  the  Iron  and   Steel  Industry. 

1'.  Heat  stroke  ("apoplexy"),  heat  exhaustion,  heat  cramps,  heat 
anemia,  and  heat  diarrhoea. 

2.  jAsthma,  bronchitis,  tuberculosis  (and  hemorrhages  while  at 
work,  due  to  dust,  sand,  gas  and  fume  inhalations,  grinding 
processes,  etc. 

3.  Premature  senility   in   older   employes. 

4.  "Gassing,"  producing  chronic  symptoms  as  headaches,  dizzi- 
ness, vomiting,  coated  tongue,  anemia,  palpitation,  insomnia, 
general  debility,  mental  dullness ;   later,  depressive  insanit.y. 

5.  Conjunctivitis,  due  to  heat,  sand  and  dust.  Injected  or  blood- 
shot eyes. 

6.  Cataracts  among  those  exposed  to  white  heated  metals. 

7.  "Sun  burn"  of  arms,  hands,  face,  due  to  exposure  to  heated 
metals.  Small  hemorrhages  under  the  skin  of  the  face. 
Blistering. 

8.  Foot  calluses,  due  to  walking  over  hot  iron  plates,  etc.  Severe 
callusing  of  the  hands. 


301 

9.     Rheumatism  and  lumbago,  due  to  great  temperature  variations. 

10.  Heart  disease,  perhaps  evinced  by  sudden  death  while  at  work. 

11.  "Hammer-man's  paralysis"  of  arms,  due  ta  use  of  heavy 
sledges.  Also  due  to  penumatic  tampers  and  other  pneumatic 
tools,  particularly  with  long  strokes. 

12.  "Striker's  arthritis"  of  wrists  and  elbows,  due  also  to  hammer- 
ing, or  holding  vibrating  tools. 

13.  "Boilermaker's"   deafness. 

14.  Ferro-silicon  poisoning.* 

15.  Chief  causes  of  death   (U.  S.  Census,  1910)  : 

Causes  of  Death.  Percentage. 

(1)  Tuberculosis     16.3 

(2)  Accidents     ,....; 16.2 

(3)  Pneumonia 10.8 

(4)  Heart   Disease    10.0 

(5)  Bright's    Disease 6.6 

*  Ferro-silicon  poisoning. 

1 .  Composition :     Fe  Si  or  Fe2Si. 

2.  Used  to  reduce  the  amount  of  carbon  absorption  in  iron  and 
steel,  to  cause  molten  steel  to  remain  fluid  for  a  long  time,  to 
prevent  blow  holes  in  castings  and  to  soften  the  product.  Is 
used  in  all  processes  of  iron-making. 

3.  Appearance:  hazel-nut  fragments,  gray  metallic  color,  hard, 
brittle,  if  powdered  producing  a  peculiar  onion-like  odor. 
Usually  kept  in  casks. 

4.  Made  from: 

(1)  Iron  and  steel  shavings  or  iron  oxide. 

(2)  Quartzite  or  sand-stone  (95%  silica). 

(3)  Anthracite  coal  or  pitch.  Mixed  in  the  cold  state  and 
fused  usually  in  an  electric  furnace,  then  broken  up  into 
small    fragments    with    hammer. 

5.  Where  silicon  is  present  to  the  extent  of  30  to  607o  dangerous 
gases  of  arseniuretted  and  phosphoretted  hydrogen  are  liable  to 
be  produced  especially  in  the  presence  of  moisture.  Where 
silicon  is  present  below  30%  or  over  70%  in  the  compound  the 
dangers  are  practically  nil. 

6.  Is  very  explosive  in  storage  rooms.  The  main  dangers  are  in 
the  transporting  and  storage  of  that  form  made  by  electricity. 

7.  That  used  in  blast  furnaces  not  dangerous   (too  low  grade). 

8.  Storage  rooms  should  be  especially  well  ventilated. 

9.  Symptoms.  Usually  of  a  few  hours'  or  days'  duration:  dizzi- 
ness, general  pains,  abdominal  pains,  nausea,  vomiting, 
diarrhoea,  bleeding,  loss  of  consciousness,  coma,  sometimes 
simply  found  dead.  Apt  to  be  diagnosed  as  gastro-enteriti^, 
ptomaine  poisoning,  or  pneumonia.  (Abstracted  from  Supple- 
ment to  38th  Annual  Report  of  Local  Government  Board,  Gr. 
Bt.,  1908-09). 

The  reader  is  also  referred  to  the  detailed  tables  of  morbidity  statistics 
in  connection  with  the  report  from  a  large  establishment  in  this  industry. 
(pp.  56-59). 


302 

In  the  23  establishments  which  our  investigators  visited,  employing  a 
total  of  28,195  w^age-earners,  the   following  conditions  were   found  to  obtain: 

(a)  A  workers'  welfare  department  existed  in  13  of  the  establishments, 
employing  a  total  of  24,142  wage-earners.  Of  these  establishments  at  least  10 
had  an  excellent  organization,  which  devoted  a  considerable  part  of  its  time  in 
the  development  of  means  to  conserve  the  health  of  the  workers,  in  addition 
to  the  elimination  of  accident  hazards.  In  the  remaining  10  establishments 
employing  4,053  workers  no  such  department  existed,  and  oftentimes  the  atti- 
tude toward  the  health  and  welfare  of  workers  appeared  very  indifferent. 

(b)  General  sanitary  and  Avorking  conditions,  such  as  protection  against 
heat,  freedom  from  prolonged  laborious  work,  rest  intervals  of  sufficient  fre- 
quency, and  sanitary  provisions  in  the  way  of  lavatories  and  toilets  appeared 
hygienically  good  in.  8  places  (employing  12,020),  fair  in  6  places  (employing 
12,065),  but  poor  in  the  remaining  9  places  (employing  4,110).  ■  In  14  of  the 
total  establishments  (employing  a  total  of  15,584  wage-earners)  there  were  no 
washing  facilities.  Workers  had  to  wash  in  tool  "bosh  tanks,"  or  under  a 
hydrant,  but,  as  a  rule,  went  without  washing.  The  type  of  closet  accommo- 
dations was  poor  in  6  plants  employing  1,462  workers.  In  these  the  simplest 
kind  of  primitive  outhouses,  usually  without  sewer  connections,  were  present. 

(c)  The  workday  varied  greatly  in  the  different  departments  of  the 
same  plant.  For  hot-process  workers,  as,  for  instance,  those  engaged  on  the 
mills,  and  at  the  furnaces,,  the  workday  was  reduced  to  8  hours  in  9  plants, 
in  some  of  which  a  noon  recess  of  Yi  hour  was  allowed,  and  in  others,  none. 
In  3  other  plants  a  9-hour  schedule  was  in  vogue  at  the  time  of  the  investiga- 
tion, while  in  the  remaining  11  plants,  the  hours  ranged  from  9|  to  13  per 
shift.  In  numbers  of  plants  in  which  hours  were  short  for  hot-process  workers, 
they  were  upwards  of^  10  to  12  per  day  for  the  general  labor  about  the  plants. 

(b)  In  6  establishments  there  were  sick  and  death  benefit  associations 
as  well  as  pension  schemes,  to  which,  however,  only  a  part  of  the  workers 
belonged  in  most  places. 

IRON  AND  STEEL.  BLAST  FURNACES. 

Blast  furnaces  were  investigated  in  8  plants,  where  1,653  men  were  em- 
ployed at  the  different  operations.  Of  these,  4  plants  were  of  modern  type 
(employing  skip  hoists  with  automatic  dumps  instead  of  men  for  top-fillers). 
The  chief  hazards  were  heai,  which  seemed  great  for  the  keepers,  the  hot 
blast  men,  the  keepers'  helpers,  the  iron  carriers,  sanders  up,  scrappers,  cinder 
bank  men,  and  top  fillers.  The  next  hazard  was  fatigue,  which  was  due  to 
periods  of  laborious  work,  as  well  as  long  hours.  The  third  hazard  appeared 
to  be  the  liability  of  contracting  commmikable  diseases,  through  spitting  into 
sands  and  dusts  present  and  in  some  places  absent  washing  facilities  and  very 
crude  closets.  The  fourth  hazard  was  the  amount  of  dampness  due  to  water 
and  steam  which  arose  from  the  granulating  pits  or  the  quenching  of  the 
cinder.  Thereafter,  dust,  and  weather  exposure  were  present.  The  hazard 
of  poisoning  was  due  to  the  escape  of  gases  which  involved  the  top-fillers 
especially,  the  stove  men  next,  and,  thereafter,  perhaps  any  of  the  workers 
often  due  to  accidental  leaks.  Complaints  were  made  in  almost  all  places  of  the 
excessive  heat,  great  variations  in  temperature,  of  the  frequency  of  rheumatism, 
bronchitis,  and  digestive  troubles.     As  a  rule,  however,  marked  exposures  were 


303 


Fig.  87.    The  Blast  Furnace. 
General   view    of   a    Blast   Furnace   completely    equipped   with    stairs,    ladders, 
railed  platforms,  etc.,  as  a  means  of  ready  access  to  any  part  of  the  furnace,  on 
account  of  the  possible  danger  of  being  overcome  with   Blast  Furnace   Gas,  and 
also  as  a  matter  of  convenience  and  general  safety  to  employes. 


304 

short-intervaled  to  both  heat  and  excessive  labor.  Comments.  —  Labor  saving 
and  health  conserving  mechanical  appliances  were  adopted  in  the  modern 
plants  consisting  of  electrically  operated  scale  cars,  skip  hoists,  carriage  ladles 
for  transporting  the  iron  directly  to  the  Bessemers,  open  hearth  or  pig  machines, 
mud  guns  to  stop  up  the  tap  holes  in  the  furnaces,  slag  ladles,  and  granulating 
pits.  Also  it  is  well  to  mention  the  8-hour  shift  adopted  in  one  place  visited, 
and  also  present  in  another  large, plant  (the  blast  furnace  section  of  which  was 
not  inspected),  good  shelter  houses,  lavatories,  including  shower  baths  and 
change  rooms;  also  medical  supervision,  and  special  selection  of  workers  for 
this  process. 


Fig.  88.     The  Base  of  a  Blast  Furnace. 
Railed  walk  "A"  on  bustle  pipe  of  a  Blast  Furnace,  where  there  is  danger 
to   workmen,   who   are  occasionally   required   to   go   on   this   platform,   of   being- 
overcome  with  Blast  Furnace  Gas.     "B"  mud  gun  which  eliminates  hand  work 
in  stopping  up  tap  holes.     "C"  opening  in  gun  for  introducing  clay  balls. 


IRON   AND  STEEL.  BESSEMER  FURNACES. 

The  Bessemer  furnaces  in  2  large  and  2  small  establishments  were  seen 
by  investigators.  A  total  of  400  employes  were  found  employed.  One  of 
these  plants  was  thoroughly  modern  in  all  equipments,  2  others  fairly  so,  and 
the  third  one  not  so.  A  work  shift  of  from  8  to  9  hours  obtained  in  2  places, 
and  12  hours  in  the  remaining  2,  the  noon  recess  being  ^  hour  in  all  places. 
The  chief  hazards  were  found  to  be  exposure  to  intense  heat  which  was  bad 
"in  2  places;  the  breathing  of  metal  and  sand  dust;  dirt  floors  and  generally 
disorderly  surroundings  in  3  places ;  dark  quarters  in  1  places ;  contamination 
of  the  atinospliere  with  gases  and  smoke  as  well  as  dust  which  was  bad  in  1 
place;  the  long  workday;  the  liability  to  to  contracting  communicable  diseases. 


.     305 

due  to  promiscuous  spitting  into  the  dusts  of  the  floors  (which  were  being 
constantly  walked  through  and  worked  upon)  and,  in  2  places,  to  the  absence 
of  washing  facilities  and  proper  toilets.  The  table  submitted  below  is  ab- 
stracted from  the  U.  S.  Government  Report,  previously  mentioned,  and  shows 
the  improvements  which  have  been  made  in  modern  plants,  invariably  to  the 
saving  of  the  workers  concerned : 

Bessemer  Furnaces. 
Old  Style  Plants.  Modem  Plants. 

Metal    Wheelers    (barrows) — Laborious       Less      laborious      two-wheel      carts, 
one-wheel  carts,  weather  exposures.  same. 

Coke  Wheelers  —  One-wheel  carts,  dust.      Two-wheel  carts,   same. 


Top  .Fillers — Laborious,  gas  and  smoke 
exposure,  flame  exposure. 


Still     laborious,     charging     machine 
used,   no   open-top   cupolas. 


Cupola  Foreman  and  Iron  Tapper  — 
Very  hot  (tapping  and  plugging), 
constantly  exposed,  no  protection 
against  heat. 


Same. 


Ladle    Car   Engineer — Very   hot. 

Manganese  Man  —  Intense  heat  while 
adding  Mn.,  intense  heat  while 
rabbling,  danger  of  being  splashed 
with   molten   metal. 


Same. 

Same.     No   rabbling  done. 


Vessel  Foreman  and  Helper— Intense 
heat  in  patching  lining  and  chang- 
ing bottom  of  vessel. 


Less  often  done,  some  shields  used ; 
still    very   hot   and   hard    work. 


Blower  and  Regulators— In'^ense  heat 
from  ingot  cars,  danger  of  being 
splashed  with  molten   metal. 


Position  entirely  changed  away  from 
heat  and  danger. 


Steel  Pourer,  Capper,  and  Test  Man — 
Intense  heat,  danger  of  being 
splashed  with  metal. 


Same. 


Vessel  Cinder  Man  —  Intense  heat, 
weather  exposures,  danger  of  be- 
ing splashed  with  molten  metal. 


Overhead     cranes     and     slag     boxes 
make  somewhat  better. 


Bottom    Maker    and    Helper — Laborious 
work. 


Same. 


Bottom  Oven  Fireman — Coke  gas. 
20    o.  D. 


Producer  gas  now  used. 


3o6 

Old  Style  Plants.  Modem  Plants. 

Shakeup     Men — Exceedingh"     hot,     ex-       Ingot    stripper    and    electrically    op- 
ceedingly   laborious.  .    crated  plunger  eliminate  hazards 

entirely. 

Ingot  Stripper  and  Helper — Great  heat,       Better  position,  less  heat.     Xo  helper 
great  danger  for  helper.  required. 

IRON  AXD   STEEL. OPEX   HEARTH   FURNACES. 

The  open  hearth  furnaces  are  said  to  be  a  matter  of  15  to  20  years  de- 
velopment in  this,  country.  The  furnaces  of  6  establishments  were  investigated 
in  6  different  cities  where  541  men  were  found  to  be  employed  in  connection 
with  these  furnaces.  This  process  was  well  handled  mechanically  and  health- 
hazards  were  less  than  in  most  other  furnace  departments  in  the  industry.  In 
5  plants  construction  appeared  fairly  modern,  and,  in  3,  various  health  appliances 
were  excellent.  There  was'  some  exposure  to  dust  which  was  quite  bad  for 
some  workers  at  times  and  consisted  of  sand,  earth  and  iron  oxides  chiefly, 
quarters  were  very  spacious  everywhere,  and  but  few  workers  were  emploj'ed  in 
relation  to  the  space  occupied  by  the  process.  Quarters  were  verj^  dirty  with 
metal  and  dust  accumulations  in  4  places.  Light  was  poor  in  1  building.  Gen- 
eneral  ventilation  was  fair  to  good  in  all  places.  The  chief  hazards  seemed  to 
have  to  do  with  the  keeping  of  the  furnaces  in  action  and  not  while  they  were 
working  satisfactorily.  In  certain  instances  workers  were  at  times  greatly 
exposed  to  heat,  particularly  while  patching  linings  or  inspecting  or  stirring  the 
metals  within.  During  this  time  most  of  them  put  on  dark  colored  glasses 
and  wore  face  shields.  Because  of  the  long  rest  intervals,  periods  for  recreation 
were  probably  sufficient  .in  all  places,  but  11  to  13-hour  shifts  obtained  in  all 
places  visited,  with  the  absence  of  a  regular  noon  recess  in  some.  The  liability 
to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  the  same  as  for  the  other  furnace 
departments.  In  some  of  the  places  the  men  were  required  to  furnish  their 
own  colored  glasses.  Below  is  given  a  synopsis  of  the  hazards  of  this  industry 
as  determined  by  the  U.  S.  Government  investigation. 

Open  Hearth  Furxaces. 

Hcalth-hasards.  Corrections    or   Improvements. 

Long    hour    (12    hours)    27%    to    52%       Men    always   changing   relative  posi- 
active  work  time.  tions. 

Heat     depends     on     building     arrange-       (Corrections  obvious.) 
ments  especially. 

The    "mixer"    very    hot    for    few    men       Properly  ventilated  roof.     Placed  in 
especially   if   breeze   in   wrong   di--  separate  building. 

rection. 

Two   rows   of   furnaces   placed  back   to       (Corrections  obvious.) 
back   makes   heat  very   intense   on 
tapping  sides. 


307 


Health-hazards. 
Old  brick  or  iron  type  furnace  fronts — 
heat   uncomfortable   20    feet    away 
(closed),  and  30   feet   away  while 
charging. 

Working   the   metal — heat    for   worker^ 
150  to  180°. 

Repairing  the   hearth — heat   for  work- 
ers 150°. 

Testing — heat    for    worker    150°. 

Barring  taphole  from  front  of  furnace 
Heat  for  workers  135-180° 


Corrections    or   Improvements. 
Water-cooled       doors,      ports       and 
fronts. 


Heat  reduced  to  120°.  Exposures 
short-intervaled.  Wear  face 
shields,  blue  glasses,  long- 
sleeved  flannel  shirts,  heavy 
shoes. 


Charging  by  hand — Furnace  doors  open 
continuously  IJ  to  2  hours.  Heat 
150°. 


Machine  charged  — heat  for  operator 
14  to  20°  higher  than  for  out- 
side heat.     Brief  intervaled. 


Making  bottom — Actual  shoveling,  22 
out  of  33  minutes.  Dust  from 
powdered  dolomite.  Magnesite 
often  catches  fire  and  men  work 
in  zone  until  work  is  finished. 
Men  literally  bathed  in  persipra- 
tion  at  end  of  turn. 


Should  wear  respirators  ( ?) — per- 
sonal measures  as  above.  Work 
not  exhausting. 


Back  of  furnace — Heat  exposures  (all 
short).  Tapping  furnace  hole, 
very  hot.  Recarburizing  molten 
metal,  very  hot.  Ladle  craneman 
often  very  much  exposed. 


In     modern     buildings     temperatures 
much  less. 


The  pit — Metal  and  slag  accumulations, 
very  hot. 

Pit    casting    and    stripping    ingots. 
Mold    cappers    often    walked    on^ 
molds   of   molten   metal,   exposed 
to  fierce  heat,  fatal  accident,  heat 
stroke. 


All  run  into  cars  and  hauled  off  at 

once. 
Not  done  any  more. 


Ingots  not   cast  in  pits   any  more. 


IRON  AND  STEEL. PUDDLING   FURNACES. 

Iron  puddling  is^a  process  which  has  remained  the  same  for  at  least  60 
years    in   manner  of   procedure,    according   to    reports.     However,    it    has   been, 
largely  supplanted  by  the  Bessemer  furnace,  which,  in  itself  is  being  supplanted 
by  the  Open  Hearth  furnace.     It  is  probably  that  in  time  electric  furnaces  will 
supplant  all. 

Puddling  was  investigated  in  2  establishments,  located  in  2  cities  where 
495  wage-earners  were  found  employed  at  the  processes  of  "puddling,"  help- 
ing,   apprenticeship    work,    "scrapping"    and    "muck-rolling."     General    laborers 


3o8 

are  not  included  in  these  figures.  A  strong  union  was  found  to  exist  in  this 
process.  The  attitude  toward  workers,  the  tj-pe  and  skill  of  workers,  and  their 
retention  appeared  good  in  both  plants.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  water- 
cooled  fronts  were  present  in  all  instances.  The  general  construction  of  work 
quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  1  place  and  not  so  in  the  other,  due  to  old 
t3'pe  of  buildings. 

Dust  was  some  feature  in  1  place  where  dirt  floors  existed,  and  cleanliness 
was  difficult  to  maintain.  The  general  ventilation  of  quarters  was  good  in  1 
place  but  only  fair  in  the  other,  due  to  contamination  of  the  air  with  fumes 
and  gases.  In  both  places  the  puddlers,  especially,  were  subject  to  the  intense 
glare  of  the  molten  nretals  within  the  furnaces,,  and  workers  were  not  found 
to  be  using  any  protection  to  the  eyes,  such  as  dark  glasses.  Heat  was  a  con- 
siderable factor  in  both  places  in  spite  of  the  \Yater  shields.  In  1  place  there 
was  a  long  exposure  to  the  heat  of  molten  masses,  while  pushing  the  "muck" 
to  the  rollers  who  worked  some  distance  away.  In  neither  place  were  there 
washing  facilities  other  than  the  tool  bosh  tanks.  One  place  was  considering 
the  installation  of  shower  baths.  The  puddlers'  time  exposures  to  the  heat 
ranged  from  30  to  45  minutes.  The  evil  effects  of  exposure  to  cold  and  chill- 
ing, because  of  stepping  outside  of  the  furnace  zones  to  cool  off,  was  present 
as  mentioned  in  other  furnace  processes.  Fatigue  appeared  a  severe  hazard 
in  both  places  because  of  laborious  work  and  piece-work,  while  using  the  body 
for  pressure  purposes,  and  the  presence  of  loud  noises  were  also  noted.  The 
workday  was  9i  hours  in  1  place,  with  1  hour  noon  recess,  and  8  hours  in 
the  other  place,  without  special  noon  recess.  The  liability  to  contracting  com- 
municable diseases  appeared  considerable  in  1  place  and  a  fair  hazard  in  the 
other,  due  to  promiscuous  spitting,  especially  upon  dirt  floors,  common  drink- 
ing vessels,  absence  of  lavatories,  and  poorh-  fitted  closets,  especially  in  1 
place.     In  both  places  workers  had  to  go  outside  to  closets. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  to  good  in  both  places,  as 
far  as  their  physical  conditions  were  concerned.  The  inducement  to  alcoholism 
was  considerable  in  this  process,  due  to  the  heat  and  fatigue  factors,  as  well  as 
the  fact  that  the  water  supply  was  not  convenient  for  a  large  part  of  the 
workers,  and  there  was  no  attempt  to  regulate  its  temperature,  so  that  in  sum- 
mer it  was  probably  used  too  cold.  The  principal  complaints  of  the  workers 
were  the  frequency  of  colds,  rheumatism  and  heat  cramps  in  the  warmer  sea- 
sons. The  rollers,  particularly,  seemed  exposed  to  great  heat,  fatigue,  and 
drafts.  The}^  were  accustomed  to  wear  face  masks  for  protection  against  ex- 
plosions when  the  water  used  blew  off  scale  and  cinders.  One  plant  claimed 
only  5  heat  prostrations  during  the  entire  summer,  although  there  were  5  cases 
of  heat  cramps  during  the  day  of  the  investigators'  visit.  This  was  said  to  be 
unusual  and  explained  as  due  to  the  rain  and  humidity  on  that  occasion. 

Connncnfs.  —  The  observations  taken  by  the  government  investigations 
show  that  the  puddlers  themselves  Avork  in  a  temperature  of  20  to  35°  higher 
than  the  outside  temperature,  and  average  about  35  minutes  to  a  heat,  there 
being  6  heats  to  a  turn  or  shift  as  a  rule.  Artificial  ventilation  by  means  of 
fans  and  air  blasts  are  used  in  modern  places.  Our  investigators  found  that 
there  was  a  tendency,  however,  to  use  larger  charges,  and  to  bring  the  "heats" 
closer  together. 


309 


IRON   AND  STEEL. 


FURNACING. 


In  15  establishments  investigated  in  9  cities  there  were  1,608  employes 
who  were  engaged  in  heating,  welding,  annealing  and  "soaking  pit"  furnace 
processes,  including  cranemen.  A  large  majority  were  engaged  upon  the  vari- 
ous mechanical  devices  used  in  placing  iron  and  steel  material  into  furnaces 
and  removing  the  same  from  the  furnaces.  In  6  plants,  where  however,  much  of 
the  work  was  manual  labor,  the  workers  using  hooks,  tongs,  bars,  rollers,  etc. 
The  need  of  health  appliances  to  protect  workers  from  the  heat  was  obvious 
in  all  places,  and  particularly  so  for  those  in  6  plants,  they  were  not  protected 
by  any  sort  of  modern  devices.  In  7  plants,  however,  such  appliances  were 
found    present    and    usually    quite    efficient.     The    general    construction    of    the 


Fig. 


Protection  Against  Heat. 


Note   water    cooled    door,    movable   heat    shield,    ventilating    fan,    and    spacious 
quarters.     A  modern  steel  works. 


buildings  in  which  these  furnaces  were  located  appeared  hygienically  good  in 
10  places  and  bad  in  only  1,  the  balance  grading  in  between.  Other  processes 
were  frequently  present  in  the  vicinity  of  such  furnaces,  such  as  Hot  and  Cold 
Rolling,  Pickling,  Open  Hearth  Furnaces,  and  the  like. 

The  chief  hazard  for  this  class  of  workers  was  the  exposure  to  heat  given 
off  in  the  process,  which  often,  also,  greatly  heated  the  iron  floor  plates.  It  was 
of  severe  degree,  particularly  in  the  warm  weather.  While  these  workers  were 
not  constantly  exposed,  they  did  not  work  in  alternating  squads  in  some 
places  as  was  the  custom  at  others,  so  that  rest  intervals  were  often  much  too 
few.  In  many  places  they  were  without  the  advantages  of  washing  facilities, 
other  than  tanks  of  water  used  to  cool  hot  tongs.     In  only  3  plants  were  they 


3IO 

furnished  shower  baths,  while  in  most  places  the  heating  of  quarters  away  from 
the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  furnaces  was  not  provided  for.  They  were  also 
exposed  to  the  disastrous  effects  of  heat  alternated  with  cold  in  stepping  out- 
side to  cool  off.  Next  in  importance  came  the  fatigue  hazard  due  to  laborious 
work,  long  hours,  prolonged  strain,  the  effect  of  intense  light  upon  the  eyes 
(from  which  very  few  were  protected  by  goggles  or  dark  glasses),  and  the 
presence  of  deafening  noises.  This  class  of  workers  had  more  exposure  to 
the  gases  from  furnaces  and  especially  from  the  heated  metals  removed  from 
the  furnaces  than  those  in  the  hot  mill  work,  as  the  former  were  the  first  to 
come  in  contact  with  the  products  after  theii'  heating.  The  effects  of  slow 
gas  poisonin-g  seemed  easily  possible  for  many  such  workers,  while  the  danger 
of    acute    "gassing"    existed    only    when    leaks    occurred    or    they    approached 


Fig.  90.     A  Health  Appliance  in  a  Modern  Steel  Works. 
Portable  ventilating  fan  used  to   furnish  cool  air  to  workmen  required  to 
enter  a  furnace  or  flues  while  the  brick  work  is  still  hot. 


furnaces  too  closely  as  in  renewing  bottoms,  patching,  etc.  In  1  or  2  places 
these  workers  were  in  the  same  quarters  Avhere  lead  tempering  was  done,  and 
in  another  place  where  brazing  was  done.  In  12  places  floors  were  of  iron 
plate  or  brick  construction,  and  kept  fairly  free  of  dust,  but  in  the  remaining 
3  places  the  atmosphere  about  some  furnaces  was  badly  contaminated.  Smoke 
was  frequently  dense.  In  6  places  quarters  appeared  more  than  usually  dis- 
ordered, so  that  it  was  difficult  to  keep  them  clean  and  (we  would  consider)  safe. 
The  general  ventilation  of  the  buildings  appeared  good  in  9  places,  fair  in  2 
others,  and  poor  in  2  places  (where  furnaces  were  crowded).  The  liability  to 
the  contraction  of  cojinnunicable  diseases  seemed  negligible  in  2  places,  fairly  so 


311 

in  10  more,  but  bad  in  the  remaining  3  places,  where  common  towels  were  at 
hand,  common  drinking  cups  were  used,  wash  places  and  closets  were'  primitive 
or  absent,  and,-  as  usual,  spitting  was  promiscuous.  We  give  below  an  abstract 
from  the  U.  S.  Government  Report  showing  some  of  the  improvements  in  some 
modern  furnace  quarters  over  those  of  old  type. 


Plate  Mill  Furnaces. 


Old  Style  Methods. 
Old  Style  Methods. 
Filers — Started  1  hour  earlier  (4  a.  m.). 
Moved    heavy    buggies    by    hand.- 
Danger  of  buggies  turning  over. 


Modern  Methods. 

Modern  Methods. 

Narrow-gage  locomotives  do  all  this. 


Chargers,  Heaters  and  Helpers — Fieces 
hand-pushed  into  furnace.  Fieces 
hand-pulled  out  of  furnace.  "Most 
laborious  character"  of  work. 
Floors  or  iron  plates,  so  hot,  nec- 
essary to  cool  off  with  water. 
Very  hot  in  summer,  cold  in  win- 
ter. Make-shift  of  water-cooled 
doors.  Renewing  of  furnace  bot- 
toms   very   hot   work. 


All  charging  and  drawing  done  by 
one  man  operating  an  elec- 
trically   driven   machine. 


Effective    water-cooled    doors. 
Same. 


Tube  Benltng  Furnaces. 

Charging — Hand    work.      On    hot    days       Done   entirely   by   charging   machine, 
often     necessary     to     do'able     and 
treble  the  crew. 

Bending — Very     laborious,     hot     work.       Workers   '"spelled"    for   longer   inter- 
Foor    ventilation.      Cool-air    pipes  vals,   water-cooled    doors,    large 

were  overhead  and  became  hot.  electric    fans    for    all    zones    of 

high   temperature. 


Tong  Running — Fatiguing  and  hot. 


Mechanical   devices. 


Rolling  Off — The  mule  used   for  "rapid  Continuous  processes  and  mechanical 

transit."       Very     irregular     floors.  devices  have  eliminated  the  mule. 

Irregular      buildings      and      roofs  Single  enormous  buildings, 
pocketed  heat  and  limited  ventila- 
tion. 

Lap  Welding  Furnaces. 

Furnace    Fits — Hand-charged,    heat    ex-  Furnaces    raised    and    no    pits.      Me- 

treme.  chanical  pusher. 


Taking    and    Rolling    Off— Hot    manual       Eliminated      by      inclined      traveling 
labor.  beds. 


312 


Butt  Weld  Furnaces. 

Feeders,     Welders,     Roller-offs,     etc.—      Machine  operations. 
Hand-charging,    hand-drawing. 


Taggers  and  Runner  Boys. 


EHminated. 


General  Features  and  Sanitary  Conditions. 


Cinder    Wheeling    and    Similar    Opera- 
tions— Done   by   wheelbarrow. 


Urinals  —  Foul      smelling 
corners. 


All    done    by    cranes    or    other    ma- 
chinery. 


remote       Good  system  of  lavatories;  also  gar- 
bage cans. 


Fig.  91.     Gas  Helmet. 

A  special  helmet  supplied  with  air  from  a  hand  blower,  to  be  worn  by  employes 

when  it  is  necessary  to  work  in  furnace  gas. 


Closets — Disgusting  privies. 

Drinking  Water — (No  particular  care). 

Ventilation — Poor  on  account  of  non- 
descript roofs  and  multiple  rooms, 
and  numerous  furnaces. 


Good  system  of  toilets. 

Plentiful,  properly  cooled  and  good. 
(Also    bubbling    fountains.) 

Spacious  quarters  greatly  limit 
smoke,  fumes  and  heat  at  work- 
ing positions.  Number  of  fur- 
naces greatly  reduced. 


3^3 

Cool  Air  Pipes — Ran  overhead  and  be- 
came   hot.  Below  floors. 

Washing    Places — The   boshes    or   tanks       (See  above.) 
used  for  cooling  tools. 

Lighting — Gas   and   oil  hand  torches.  Scientifically    arranged    arc    lights. 

Movements   of   Raw   Materials — Wheel-       All   materials   and  products   mechan- 
barrows    and   trucks,    requiring   an  ically  handled, 

army  of  men  and  mules. 

IRON  AND  STEEL.  HOT   MILL   PROCESSES. 

The  hot  mill  work  was  investigated  in  both  mechanical  and  hand  mills 
Needless  to  say  the  most  arduous  work  was  in  connection  with  the  latter.  In 
22  mills  investigated  in  14  cities  of  the  state  there  were  found  to  be  9,404  wage- 
earners  (all  males)  engaged  at  the  various  hot  mill  processes  (mills,  tables, 
shears,  etc.). 

A  union  organization  existed  in  1  of  the  plants  investigated.  The  general 
interest  of  employers  in  the  health  and  welfare  of  employes  appeared  good  in 
19  places,  fair  in  2  others,  and  quite  indifferent  in  the  remaining  1,  where,  how- 
ever, some  400  workers  were  engaged  at  this  process.  The  type  of  workers 
was  an  intelligent  and  steady  class  in  ,11  places,  only  fairly  so  in  10  more,  and 
hot  so  in  1.  In  many  of  the  places  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  workers 
were  foreigners,  often  non-English  speaking.  In  17  of  the  plants  various  forms 
of  health  appliances  were  found  present,  usually  to  protect  workers  against  the 
effects  of  heat,  dust,  smoke  and  steam.  These  consisted  variously  of  screens, 
asbestos  and  glass  shields,  electric  fans,  air-blasts,  curtains,  and  various  mechan- 
ical devices  which  relieved  the  workers  of  the  necessity  of  having  to  approach 
the  heated  metals  so  close.  In  5  of  the  17  plants  these  arrangements  were,  how- 
ever, clearly  not  efficient.  In  9  of  the  establishments  organized  instructions 
concerning  personal  health  and  hygiene  were  given,  usually  as  auxiliary  to  the 
"safety  first"  propaganda  which  was  being  advocated  in  most  places.  In  7  of 
the  plants  workers  had  the  privilege  of  joining  sick  benefit  associations.  Other 
processes  than  hot  rolling  were  frequently  present,  such  as  (1)  Furnaces 
(closely  placed),  (2)  Bessemer  Furnaces,  (3)  Pickling,  (4)  Cold  Rolling,  (5) 
Machine  Shopping,  and  (6)  Metal  Grinding.  The  age-group  estimations 
summed  up  as  follows:  over  45  years,  68;  between  40  and  45  years,  307;  under 
40  years,  8,124. 

Dust  was  a  negligible  hazard  in  this  process  in  15  plants,  but  a  fair  hazard 
in  G  more,  and  bad  in  1,  a  small  place,  where  grinding  was  also  done  in  the 
same  quarters.  The  mill  rooms  were  kept  clean  and  orderly,  and  well  arranged 
in  14  places,  fairly  so  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  6,  in  some  of  which 
cleaning  of  the  floors  under  foot  appeared  to  be  seldom  done.  Quartejs  were 
naturally  well  lifjhtcd  in  13  places,  fairly  so- in  G  more,  hut  in  the  remaining  3 
artificial  light  (and  this  in  some  instances  f|uite  inadequate)  was  depended 
upon.  In  some  instances  the  intense  heat  to  which  the  metals  were  brought 
made  them  sufficiently  brilliant  to  prove  damaging  to  the  eyes  of  workers  who 
were   required   to   be   close   to  them.     But    few   of   these   wore   colored   glasses. 


314 

The  general  ventilation  of  these  mill  rooms  where  the  workers  were  required 
to  be  was  good  in  7  establishments,  while,  in  all  of  the  remaining,  a  con- 
siderable part  of  the  men  worked  in  vitiated  atmosphere.  This  was  espe- 
cially so  in  3  places,  all  of  which  were  large  sized  mills.  The  chief  reasons 
for  vitiated  atmosphere  were  contamination  with  the  gases  given  off  by  the 
metals,  pollution  with  smoke  and  dust,  and,  to  a  limited  extent,  with  salt- 
water sprays  and  steam.  The  absence  of  means  to  promote  a  more  rapid 
circulation  of  air  was  an  important  factor.  Heat  was,  of  course,  present  in 
all  places,  but  in  3  plants  workers  were  so  well  protected  by  various  mechanical 
appliances,  and  by  frequent  rest  intervals,  that  they  appeared  to  be  free  from 
material  harm  from  this  source.  In  6  other  plants  this  was  so  to  a  large  ex- 
tent for  most  of  the  workers,  but  in  the  remaining  13  mills  a  good  percentage 


Fig.  92.     In  A  Pipe  Mill. 
Protection  against  heat.     Note  shields,  spacious  quarters  and  high   ceilings. 


of  the  workers  were  inordinately  exposed  to  the  temperature  of  the  heated 
metals,  hot  rolls,  and  hot  floor  plates.  In  some  of  these,  certain  appliances  were 
at  hand,  but  they  were  only  partly  efficient,  or  out  of  order.  As  great  a  hazard 
as  any  to  which  these  workers  were  subjected  was  the  alternate  exposure  to 
cold  by  going  out  from  hot  vicinities  to  the  open  sides  of  buildings  or  else- 
where while  in  a  perspiring  condition,  to  cool  ofif.  Many  times  they  sat  down 
on  benches  in  the  direct  draft  or  wind,  and  presently  returned  to  the  work, 
this  alternation  being  kept  up  throughout  the  day.  In  the  winter  time  some 
of  the  plants  were  very  inefficiently  heated,  or  there  were  no  heating  arrange- 
ments at  all.  In  such  places  it  was  practically  the  temperature  of  the  outside 
weather  in  the  outskirts  of  the  mills,  while  upwards  of  100°  to  150°  in  places 
wher?   the   workers   wer^   required   to   be.     In   a   number-  of   places   open   coke 


315 

salamanders  were  depended  upon  for  heating  premises  in  the  winter  seasons, 
and  gases  from  these  polluted  the  atmosphere  for  great  distances.  Another 
chief  hazard  in  the  industry  was  fatigue.  While  this  was  rated  as  nominal 
in  3  plants,  it  appeared  to  range  from  fair  to  bad  in  the  other  19  plants.  The 
chief  factors  were  laborious  work,  long  hours,  prolonged  strain,  "speeding  up," 
and,  for  numbers  of  persons,  monotony,  jarring  processes,  prolonged  faulty 
postures,  and  severe  pressure  against  the  person.  In  practically  all  places 
deafening  noises  from  the  mills  and  the  movement  of  products  were  present, 
oftentimes  so  marked  that  it  was  impossible  to  make  oneself  heard  in  the 
vicinity.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  commumcable  diseases  appeared 
fairly  negligible  in  some  12  plants,  while  in  the  remaining  10  there  were  a 
number  of  opportunities  for  contracting  disease,  one  from  another.  These 
were,  chiefly,  inadequate  washing  facilities,  primitive  ifoilet  arrangements, 
promiscuous  spitting  upon  the  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  frequent  trivial 
injuries,  flying  particles,  the  infection  of  calluses  without  prompt  first-aid 
arrangements,  and  (less  often)  to  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  or  jugs 
of  water,  and  towels.  In  a  considerable  majority  of  the  places  bubbling 
fountains  were  present,  and  some  plants  were  excellently  equipped  in  sanitary 
features,  including  individual  lavatory  basins,  hot  and  cold  water,  soap,  model 
toilets,  showers,  change  rooms,  double  lockers  (one  for  street  clothes  and  the 
other  for  shop  clothes)  and  everything  procurable  in  the  matter  of  first-aid 
equipment,  while  physical  examinations,  medical  supervision,  and  a  selection 
of  the  workers  for  the  processes  at  hand  were  given  every  thought.  There 
were  also  furnished  goggles,  hand-protectors,  gloves,  and,  where  needed, 
leather  aprons,  while  a  careful  supervision  was  made  of  the  types  of  shoes 
worn.  The  only  liability  to  poisoning;  which  investigators  could  ascertain, 
was  from  the  effects  of  inhalations  of  carbon  monoxide  and  carbon  dioxide 
gases  emitted  by  the  hot  metals  worked  upon  in  nearby  furnaces,  or  salamanders. 
The  results  of  these  might  easily  be  slow  chronic  poisoning,  although  their 
concentration  was  probably  never  enough  to  cause  asphyxia.  The  industrial 
inducement  to  alcoholism  was  considerable  for  the  workers  in  most  of  the 
plants,  due,  chiefly,  to  the  depressing  effects  of  heat-toxins  combined  with 
fatigue-toxins,  resulting  from  the  work.  Where  drinking  water  was  not  care- 
fully supervised  as  to  quality,  temperature,  and  convenience,  there  was  an 
additional  great  inducement  for  workers  to  quench  their  thirsts  otherwise 
whenever   opportunity   offered. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  in  these  mills  was  fairly  good  in 
practically  all  places.  The  large  percentage  of  men  under  40  years  of  age, 
and  many  of  these  recent  employes,  should  be  considered,  however.  It  is  true 
that  a  fair  number  of  pale  and  anemic,  fatigued,  and  many  heat-suffering  work- 
ers were  seen,  and  complaints  of  rheumatism,  lumibago,  heat  colics  in  the  sum- 
mer time,  heat  prostrations,  diarrhea,  heat-skin  affections  ("sun-burning,"  blister- 
ing, dermatitis,  Mood  shot  eyes),  and  heat  exhaustion  were  common.  In  one 
place  it  was  admitted  that  many  "succumbed  to  heat",  and  two  were  overcome 
with  heat  while  investigators  were  present. 

Comments.  —  If  the  various  commendable  features  adopted  in  various 
plants,  or  those  made  use  of  in  2  or  3  of  the  best  equipped  plants,  were 
adopted  throughout  the  mills  inspected,  there  would  be  a  great  reduction  of 
hazards  in  this  process.  Heat  is  probably  the  chief  hazard,  although  it  is 
impossible  to  say  that  fatigue  is  not  worse.  After  these  the  breathing  of  hot, 
smoky   and   gaseous    atmosphere   is    another    arch   health-hazard,   while   jarring 


3i6 

and  jerking  processes,  and  excessive  noise  are  other  features.  Some  of  these, 
of  course,  it  would  'be  quite  impossible  to  eliminate.  The  introduction  of  the 
small  continuous  mechanical  mills  for  h'nd  mills  greatly  limits  the  hazards. 
A  more  frequent  alternation  of  workers  would  help  to  solve  some  of  the 
situations.  A  special  committee  in  each  plant  should  investigate  and  devise 
means  of  curtailing  the  hazards  above  mentioned.  Every  case  of  sickness 
among  workers  (these  men  are  at  the  prime  of  their  existence)  should  be  the 
subject  of  an  inquiry  with  a  view  of  preventing  a  repetition  of  its  cause  if  any 
industrial  or  preventable   factor  is  at  the  bottom  of  it. 

IRON  AND  STEEL. COLD  MILL  PROCESSES. 

A  rather  small  proportion  of  iron  and  steel  mill  workers  are  engaged  in 
work  upon  cold  roll  processes,  while  there  are  usually  a  vast  number  of 
laborers  working  in  the  vicinity  of  these  mills.  The  health-hazards  of  this 
type  of  work  are  very  much  less  than  hot  rolling  or  furnacing,  but  the  factor 
of  fatigue  plays  an  important  part  in  the  illnesses  which  affect  these  workers. 
It  is  due  to  the  whole  list  of  fatigue  causes  variously  prominent  in  different 
places.  Usuall}'-,  the  work  is  piece-work  and  is  also  of  an  arduous  character, 
while  the  hours  are  long.  There  is  rather  more  dust  connected  with  the 
process  which  comes  from  the  more  or  less  oxidized  iron  and  steel  which 
has  lain  aside  for  certain  intervals  of  time  before  getting  to  this  process. 
These  workers  are  also  troubled  with  calluses  of  the  hands.  The  noise  from 
the  rolls  is  deafening  and  many  of  the  workers  are  affecte-d  thereby.  The  cold 
rolling  is  often  done  near  the  hot  rolls  and  these  workers  are  subject  to  the 
hazards  of  this  process.  Absence  of  heat  in  the  winter  time  is  to  be  considered 
a  much  less  hazard  for  the  men  about  cold  rolls  than  for  hot  process  workers 
who  leave  the  rolls  and  tables  to  cool  off. 

.      '  IRON   AND  STEEL.  WIRE  DRAWING. 

The  processes  of  wire  drawing  were  investigated  in  2  plants,  where  a 
total  of  224  wage-earners  were  found  so  engaged.  The  work  was  very 
largely  mechanical  and  easily  supervised  by  laboring  crews,  the  majority  of 
whom  were  foreigners,  mostly  non-English  speaking.  They  appeared  to  re- 
main well  at  the  process,  and  in  1  place  were  provided  with  boots  and  hand 
protectors;  also  had  sick  benefit  and  pension  privileges.  They  were  prac- 
tically all  under  40  years  of  age,  with  a  few  under  20.  The  construction  of 
work  quarters  was  good  except  for  some  of  the  processes  in  1  plant,  which  were 
located  in   a  low-ceilinged,   damp,   dark  basement,   artificially  lighted. 

The  hazards  of  the  process  appeared  to  be  only  nominal.  In  the  coarse 
wire  rolling  departments  there  was  considerable  flour  dust  in  the  air  and 
upon  the  floors.  The  work  was  rather  damp  and  sloppy,  due  to  the  vats  of 
flour  water  which  were  used  for  lubricating  purposes.  The  atmosphere  had  a 
sour  odor  from  the  fermentation  going  on  in  the  vats.  One  plant  was  equipped 
with  shower  baths  and  generally  good  sanitary  conveniences.  There  were 
also  present  cuspidors  and  proper  drinking  facilities.  The  other  plant  was 
very  poorly  so  equipped.  The  process  itself  appeared  to  be  devoid  of  poisoning 
hazards,  but  the  Galvanizing,  Copper  Plating  and  Tinning  had  hazards  as  de- 
scribed elsewhere.  In  1  place  in  particular  risks  of  poisoning  from  copper  sul- 
phate and  strong  sulphuric  acid  vapors  were  present. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  to  good  in  both  places.  The 
only  complaints  were  irritation  of  the  throat  and  coughing,  in  the  Galvanizing 


317  ^ 

and  Tinning  processes.     Comments.  —  Rubber  gloves  or  other  liand  protections 

were   badly   needed    in    1    place.      There    appears    to   be    a    possibility    of    yeast 

dermatitis    in    this    class    of    workers,    although    no    cases    of    the    same    were 

brought   to   our   attention. 

*     *     *     * 

The  balance  of  Iron  and  Steel  workers  who  are  engaged  in  health- 
hazardous  work  usually  fall  into  such  processes  as  Machine  Shopping,  Forg- 
ing and  Blacksmithing,  Tempering,   General  Factory  Processes,  etc.      (q.  v.). 

LEATHER    TANNING. CHEMICAL    PROCESSES. 

The  majority  of  special  workers  in  tanneries  are  employed  in  the  various 
chemical  processes.  As  investigated  in  8  plants  in  4  cities,  there  were  a  total 
of  268  men  engaged  in  these  processes,  which  consisted  in  placing  the  hides 
in  lime  vats;  scraping  them  (tacked  on  beams)  to  get  rid  of  hair;  fleshing  and 
scrubbing;  oiling  with  so-called  cod-liver  oil,  which  was  done  by  hand,  using 
a  small  board;  tanyard  processes,  which  consisted  of  grinding  the  oak  bark, 
leaching  the  bark  for  use,  and  the  making  of  the  tanning  solutions  (oak  bark, 
tobacco,  etc.)  ;  subjecting  the  hides  to  the  tanning  solution;  clearing  processes, 
using  weak  sulphuric  acid  solutions;  and  a  little  bleaching,  in  which  lead 
acetate  was  used.  In  only  1  firm  was  any  chrome  tanning  done,  and  this  was 
limited   in   amount. 

Apparently  modern  methods  were  used  in  all  except  1  small  place. 
There  were  no  unions.  The  interest  of  employers  in  workers'  health  and  wel- 
fare appeared  good  in  3  plants,  fair  in  3  others,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  2, 
where  a  total  of  37  workers  were  employed.  A  fair  type  of  workers  was 
employed  in  2  places,  but  the  large  majority  were  of  ignorant,  non-English 
speaking  type  in  the  remaining.  Workers  appeared  to  be  retained  fairly  con- 
stantly in  4  places,  while  the  personnel  seemed  subject  to  frequent  changes  in 
the  remaining  4.  There  were  no  devices  for  these  processes  which  could  be 
called  health  appliances  in  any  of  the  plants,  while  sick  benefit  and  similar 
organizations  were  absent.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was 
not  hygienically  good  in  any  establishment.  Other  processes  were  usually 
separate  from  the  chemical  processes  here  described,  but,  as  a  rule,  several  of 
these  sub-processes  were  carried  on  in  the  same  quarters.  The  age-group 
estimations  summed  up  as  follows :  over  50  years,  3 ;  between  45  and  50  years, 
2;  between  40  and  45  years,  20;  under  40  years,  243.  Of  the  last  age-group 
about  10  per  cent  were  under  20  years. 

The  only  places  in  which  dust  seemed  to  be  a  hazard  were  in  the  hair 
room,  where  a  limited  amount  of  fine  hair  dust  was  present,  and  in  the  grind- 
ing up  of  tan  bark,  which  was  very  dusty,  and  without  protective  devices.  In 
7  places  quarters  were  very  dirty  and  disorderly,  and  apparently  seldom 
cleaned.  Dampness  and  humidity  were  a  considerable  hazard  in  2  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  5  others,  due  to  washing  and  soaking  processes  and  the  preparation 
of  tanning  solutions.  Light  was  bad  in  2  places,  for  a  considerable  percentage 
of  the  workers.  Artificial  lighting  was  usually  by  naked  electric  lamps.  The 
general  room  ventilation  for  these  chemical  processes  was  good  in  2  places, 
fair  in  another,  but  poor  in  the  remaining  5,  due,  principally  to  contamination 
and  pollution  with  vapors,  odors  and  steam,  as  well  as  to  stagnation  of  the 
air.  Heat  was  no  apparent  hazard,  except  in  the  tan-bark  leeching  room  of 
one  establishment  where  it  was  excessive.  Fatigue  appeared  to  be  a  hazard 
in    some    operations.      Lifting    hides,    cleaning    and    unhairing  ,  were    laborious 


3i8 

operations  with  much  stooping.  The  workday  was  10  hours  in  al!  places,  with 
a  noon  recess  of  J  hour  in  3  places,  and  from  this  to  1  hour  in  the  remaining 
5.  In  1  place  a  10-minute  recess  was  taken  both  in  the  morning  and  afternoon. 
The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  considerable  in  all ' 
places,  due  variously  to  poor  or  absent  washing  facilities,  primitive  closets  in 
most  places,  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups  and  wiping  rags,  promiscuous 
spitting,  and  the  absence  of  cuspidors.  A  part  of  one  plant  was  well  equipped 
with  bubbling  fountains,  good  toilets  and  wash  places.  The  liability  to  con- 
tracting blood  poisoning  and  parasitic  diseases  from  the  handling  of  hides 
was  apparent  in  all  places,  and  was  increased  through  the  prevalence  of 
dermatitis  and  eczema,  •  due  to  the  various  chemicals  used  Many  of  the 
workers'  hands  were  also  very  callused  from  the  use  of  knives  and  boards 
in  fleshing  and  rubbing  processes.  Workers  were  somewhat  less  liable  to 
animal  and  fllth  diseases  than  those  in  the  flaying  rooms  of  fertilizing  works, 
(q.  V.)  The  risk  of  industrial  poisoning  was  considerable  in  all  places,  but 
was  usually  of  a  mild  character,  due  to  the  handling  of  hides  soaked  in  lime 
solution,  acid  preparations,  and  weak  sulphuric  acid  cleaning.  Lead  and 
chrome  compounds  were  only  limitedly  used.  Lead  poisoning  from  the  use 
of  crude  sulphuric  acid  w-as  a  possibility.  The  risk  from  arsenic  poisoning 
from  preservatives  used  on  the  hides  as  bought,  and  from  realgar  (arsenic 
sulphide)  added  to  the  lime  to  hasten  unhairing  could  not  be  determined  in 
the  time  at  hand.  The  same  applies  also  to  the  risk  of  cyanide  poisoning  from 
gas  lime  used,  _and  hydrogen  sulphide  gas  in  the  storage  of  green  hides.  The 
industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  considerable,  due  to  the  greasy, 
iloppy,  odorous  character  of  the  work,  while  in  1  or  2  instances  drinking  of 
beer  within  the  quarters  was  permitted  during  noon  and  at  recesses. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  as  to  health,  but  they  were 
usually  covered  with  dirt  and  grease,  while  some  anemic  and  sickly  looking 
individuals  were  seen.  The  workers  made  complaints  concerning  the  effects 
of  irritating  solutions  upon  the  hands  and  sore  throats  from  sulphuric  acid 
clearing.  Comments.  —  While  this  class  of  work  is  necessarily  of  an  unin- 
viting character,  there  appears  to  be  no  good  reason  why  attention  should 
not  be  given  to  daily  cleaning  of  quarters,  good  drainage  of  floors,  proper 
lighting,  and  ventilation.  In  all  instances  workers  were  required  to  furnish 
their  own  boots,  while  in  others  they  worked  barefooted.  On  the  whole,  the 
work  is  probabl}-  not  as  hazardous  as  would  be  imagined,  and  the  chief  ob- 
jectionable features  appertain  to  questions  of  general  sanitation  and  personal 
hygiene. 

Chief   Causes  of  Death  : 

439   tanners    and   leather   curriers    (U.    S.    Mortality    Statistics    1909)  : 

Normal  Per- 
cent among 
occupied 
Disease.  Percent.        males. 

Tuberculosis     15-2  14 . 8 

Heart  Disease  14.3.  11.9 

Pneumonia     8-8  8.0 

Bright's  Disease   ■         8.7  8.5 

Apoplexy  and  Paralysis  8.0  7.3 

Hence  all  chief  causes  are  above  the  average  for  occupied  males. 


319 


Average    Length    of    Life. 

438  tanners  and  leather  curriers  averaged  52.9  years. 
Decade  in  which  most  died,  45  to  54  years. 

LEATHER  TANNING. — DYEING. 

The  coloring  and  japanning  processes  upon  leather  were  investigated 
in  6  establishments  in  4  cities,  where  254  men  were  found  so  engaged.  About 
240  of  these  were  japanners,  enamelers,  or  patent-leather  workers,  and  their 
methods  of  work  and  health-hazards  were  about  the  same  as  described  else- 
where under  Japanning.  The  balance  of  the  workers  were  engaged  in  coloring  . 
and  mottling  processes,  including  some  hand  rubbing.  There  were  no  unions. 
The  general  attitude  toward  employes,  the  type  of  employes,  and  their  reten- 
tion, did  not  differ  materially  from  the  statements  made  under  these  headings 
in  the  previous  processes.  In  2  places  in  which  large  numbers  of  japanners 
were  engaged  suction  fans  were  located  in  the  work  quarters.  The  general 
construction  of  the  work  quarters  was  good  in  1  place,  fair  in  another,  but 
hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  4,  one  of  which  was  a  large  establishment. 
In  smaller  establishments  the  work  was  usually  done  in  quarters  where  rub- 
bing and  scrubbing  of  hides  was  performed.  The  age-group  estimations 
summed  up  showing  10  workers  over  40  years  of  age,  and  244  under  that  age. 

In  1  place  emery  dust  was  a  limited  hazard  in  the  finishing  room,  while 
in  4  places  quarters  were  dirty  and  disorderly,  sometimes  to  an  extreme,  the 
floors  being  thickly  coated  with  paints,  enamels  and  oils.  The  chief  hazard 
appeared  to  be  the  risk  of  poisoning.  Black,  yellow,  white,  red  and  green 
colors  were  used.  In  1  place  the  mixer  claimed  -that  only  a  small  amount  of 
lead  was  used,  the  rest  being  anilin  dyes.  The  principal  complaint  was  of 
benzine  used  as  a  solvent.  Mottling  was  done  with  a  solution  containing 
naphtha,  amyl  acetate  and  wood  alcohol.  The  applying  of  colors  in  boiled 
linseed  oil  and  naphtha  was  done  by  men  who  smeared  and  spread  the  mixture 
over  the  surface  of  the  leather.  These  colors  were  prepared  in  a  separate 
paint  shop  room,  white  lead  and  oil  being  used  for  white  colors,  lamp  black 
and  oil  for  black  colors.  The  linseed  oil  was  thinned  and  "dried"  with 
naphtha,  the  odor  of  which  was  very  strong  in  most  places.  In  other  places 
a  solution  of  ferrous  sulphate  and  tannic  acid  was  used  for  black  coloring.  In 
some  instances  the  black  anilin  dye  "nigrisin"  was  used  (in  this  connection  one 
worker  appeared  to  be  faintly  cyanotic,  but  made  no  health  complaints).  Log- 
wood was  also  a  common  coloring  solution.  Another  hazard  in  the  process 
was  exposure  to  heat  from  japanning  ovens.  Here  and  there  a  suction  fan 
was  present  and  materially  alleviated  the  effects  of  heat.  It  was  common  to 
see  men  working  in  bare  feet  and  stripped  to  the  waist.  In  some  places  special 
rooms  were  arranged  for  drying  purposes  with  steam  coils  on  the  concrete 
floors  beneath  the  colored  hides  which  were  stretched  on  frames  and  stood 
vertically.  The  temperature  of  japanning  ovens  was  kept  at  about  160-175°  F., 
while  the  room  containing  the  ovens  ranged  from  85  to  100°  F.  In  1  place  i-t 
was  customary  on  hot  days  to  discontinue  the  work.  The  need  of  shower 
baths  is  evidenced  by  the  fact  that  at  the  time  of  inspection  in  1  place,  which 
was  at  the  close  of  the  day's  work,  6  men  were  naked  and  (bathing  in  gal- 
vanized iron  pails  to  get  rid  of  the  grease  and  naphtha.  The  plant  also  had 
three  lavatory  wash  basins  on  each  floor.     Another  hazard  was  fatigue.    Piece- 


320 

work  was  the  rule  in  larger  plants,  and  on  hot  days  the  Work  appeared  un- 
usualh^  exhausting  in  the  patenting  and  japanning  processes.  The  liability  to 
contracting  communicable  diseases  was  the  same  as  described  for  the  chem- 
ical processes,  except  that  the  cured  and  tanned  leathers  did  not  offer  a  hazard 
from  animal  parasites  and  infections. 

The  chief  complaint  of  the  workers  were  of  the  heat,  the  dirty,  greasy 
character  of  the  work,  and  the  effects  of  benzine  or  naphtha  fumes.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  them  were  pale  and  anemic  and  sometimes  dissipated 
looking.  One  worker  in  a  paint  shop  where  colors  were  mixed  was  un- 
questionably suffering  from  slow  lead  poisoning,  while  there  was  a  suspicion 
of  the  same  among  a  number  of  the  color  workers.  Comments.  —  For  most 
of  these  workers  the  same  precautions  should  be  observed  as  described  else- 
where under  japanning,  while  there  is  much  room  for  improvement  of  san- 
itary conditions  and  'cleanliness  of  work  quarters,  washing  facilities,  better 
room  ventilation,  and  the  like,  in  most  of  the  places. 

LEATHER  TANNING. HANDLING   AND   MANIPULATING. 

A  third  group  of  workers  in  the  Tannery  industrj-,  after  those  in  chemical 
processes  and  coloring  or  dyeing  processes  have  been  considered,  are  those 
who  may  be  conveniently  grouped  under  the  classification  above.  These  in- 
clude such  processes  as  cutting,  trimming,  splitting,  tacking  to  frames,  and 
drying,  preparing  russet  leather,  polishing  by  hand  or  machines,  "stuffing"  or 
working  stearin  and  grease  into  the  leather,  and  "whitening"  or  the  removing 
of  the  outer  surface  of  the  leather  b}^  buffing  or  by  machine  knives,  leaving  a 
whiter  appearing  coat  beneath.  In  7  establishments  investigated  there  were 
161  men  emploj^ed  in  these  various  manipulations.  They  were  usually  of  a 
more  intelligent  type  than  observed  in  the  other  processes,  the  work  being 
partly  of  skilled  nature. 

Dust  was  of  an  abundant  and  fine  character  in  the  case  of  whitening. 
Blowers  provided  at  the  machines  did  not  prevent  the  person  of  the  operator 
from  becoming  well  covered  with  this  dust  and  considerable  accumulation  of 
it  took  place  about  the  machines.  Some  workers  complained  of  coughs, 
colds,  etc.  Scouring  was  done  by  means  of  "softening  boards"  (by  rubbing 
the  leather  with  emery  paper  tacked  on  wooden  blocks  and  applied  by  hand), 
there  being  no  protection  from  the  dust  created.  Dampness  was  considerable 
in  some  of  the  trimming  and  splitting  quarters.  Ventihtion  of  quarters  was 
bad  in  some  instances,  and  numbers  of  workers  were  working  in  hot  stuffy 
locations,  men  often  going  about  in  bare  feet.  Fatigue  was  also  some  hazard 
to  certain  workers,  as  in  "rolling"  where  workers  forced  the  leather  against 
rolls  by  means  of  foot  levers,  the  thigh  coming  to  right  angles  with  the  body 
in  each  movement.  It  was  observed  that  one  man  made  fifty- four  such 
movements  a  minute.  The  work  was  piece-work.  Other  workers  were  re- 
quired to  remain  standing  still  for  long  periods.  The  liability  to  contracting 
animal  and  infectious  diseases  was  about  the  same  as  described  for  the  chemical 
processes.  Workers  had  the  habit  of  holding  tacks  in  their  mouths,  these 
being  used  over  and  over  again  by  different  workers.  Another  hazard  was 
that  of  skin  irritation  or  poisoning,  due  to  stearin  and  grease  used  in  "stuffing" 
and  the  handling  of  leather  and  hides  recently  treated  with  chemicals  and 
colors.  Many  of  the  processes  were  associated  with  very  nauseating  odors  to 
which   the  men  were   apparently  habituated. 


321 

Comments.  —  While  in  one  or  two  instances  the  plants  were  fairly- 
modern  in  construction  and  fairly  clean,  considering  the  nature  of  the  work, 
.nost  of  the  places  were  very  insanitary  and  generally  health-hazardous. 
Here  and  there  closets  were  out  of  doors  and  washing  facilities  were  at  a 
premium.  While  spitting  was  discountenanced  in  one  or  two  establishments, 
there  were  no  cuspidors   supplied. 

BOOTS  AND  SHOES. 

The  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  for  men,  women  and  children  is 
an  extensive  industry  in  the  state,  but  after  investigating  28  establishments 
located  in  9  cities,  and  employing  a  total  of  11,806  wage-earners,  we  reached 
the  conclusion  that  from  a  health-hazard  point  of  view  the  various  processes 


Fig.  93.    Boots  and  Shoes. 
Leather  cutting  room. 


were  essentially  those  of  General  Factory  Work,  and  that  such  hazards  as 
existed  depended  more  upon  local  conditions  and  methods  of  procedure  than 
peculiarities  inherent  in  the  industry.  On  the  whole,  however,  the  general 
working  conditions  of  the  places  investigated  ranked  higher  than  for  General 
Factory  Processes.  In  respect  to  the  general  conditions  of  work,  the  care  of 
employes,  the  conveniences  provided,  and  the  protection  from  dust  and  fumes, 
the  28  firms   ranked   as   follows : 


21      O.   D. 


No.  of 
Firms. 
11 
6 
5 
3 
3 

Total  28 


322 

Total 

Rank.  Employes. 

Good     6,755 

Fair  to  Good  1,345 

Fair 2,514 

Poor  to  Fair   605 

Poor' 587 


11,806 


Sick  benefit  organizations  were  found  to  exist  in  5  establishments,  employ- 
ing a  total  of  2,838  wage-earners.     The  working  hours  were  as  follows  : 


Fig.  94.     Boots  and  Shoes. 
Sole  leather  (fitting)  room. 


No.  of 

Hours 

Finns. 

per  Day. 

9 

9 

9 

9 

1 

9J 

18 

10** 

Noon  Recess. 
1  hour  in     9  firms. 
1  hour  in     9  firms. 
J  hour  in  18  firms.* 
f  hour  in     1  firm. 


There  were  other  arrangements  also  to  avoid  exceeding  54  hours  per  week. 
Age-group  estimations  were  not  made  by  our  investigators,  but  1  establish- 
ment, employing  a  total  of  1,699  persons  submitted  the  following  census  figures, 
taken  about  the  first  of  the  year  1913 : 


*  In  2  of  these,  females  were  allowed  1  hour. 
**  In  2  of  these,  females  worked  9  hours,  and  in  another  9|  hours. 


323 

Age-groups.                           •  Males. 

16-30  years   300 

31-45  years   500 

46-60  years    200 

60  years  and  up 19 

Total    1,019 


Females. 
640 
80 


680 


Many  of  the  plants  investigated  were  among  the  best  in  the  state,  adopt- 
ing the  most  modern  methods,  with  an  evident  serious  attitude  regarding  the 
health  and  welfare  of  employes,  the  retention  of  the  same  personnel  of  employes 
as  far  as  possible,  health  organizations,  benefit  schemes,  hygienic  construction  of 
work  quarters,  and  the  installation  of  health  appliances.     The  subject  of  lighting 


Fig.  95.    Boots  and  Shoes. 
Cementing  and  pressing  heel  lifts. 


was  given  considerable  attention,  and  where  it  was  necessary  for  numbers  of 
persons  to  work  facing  the  light,  frosted  windows,  light  window  shades,  and  eye 
shades  were  provided.  Two  establishments  visited  were  on  the  point  of  moving 
into  new  and  modern  quarters. 

Complaints  were  made  in  a  number  of  the  best  equipped  plants  that  em- 
ployes were  not  appreciative  and  thwarted  efforts  of  the  managements  by  such 
acts  as  plugging  up  bubbling  fountains,  plugging  up  toilets,  spitting  upon  the 
floors  where  plenty  of  cuspidors  were  supplied,  besmirching  newly  painted  walls 
with  tobacco  spit,  wads  of  tobacco,  etc.     However,  the  overt  acts  of  a  few  em- 


324 

ployes  were  not  allowed  to  deter  the  managements  in  their  efforts,  we  are  glad 
to  say. 

The  chief  health-hazards  noted  in  connection  with  the  different  processes 
in  the  manufacture  of  men's,  women's  and  children's  boots  and  shoes  are 
given  below.  The  departments  have  been  arranged  to  correspond  with  the 
divisions  given  in  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  No.  154  (1914),  as  these  divisions 
were  found  to  apply  almost  throughout,  with  the  exception  that  a  number  of 
sub-processes  which  the  government  bulletin  places  under  "buttoming",  were 
called  "finishing"  by  managements.  However,  we  have  adhered  to  the  arrange- 
ment given  in  the  government  bulletin,  leaving  "finishing"  to  include  the 
"treers",  or  "ironers".  One  unavoidable  procedure  throughout  the  industn,- 
which    may   be    distinctly   hazardous    is  .the    shor.t-inten?aled    handling    of    shoe 


Fig.  96.     Boots  and  Shoes. 
Fitting  or  stitching  room. 


parts  by  different  workers,  one  after  the  other.  It  is  said  that  "each  shoe 
goes  through  a  hundred  hands".  Callosities  are  very  common  for  workers  in 
the  various  processes.  These  often  become  sore  and  painful,  and  are  a  source 
of  danger  in  case  of  cuts  or  punctured  wounds,  since  blood  poisoning  so 
easily  develops  in  such  wounds. 

CUTTING  DEPARTMENT.  — In  24  establishments  there  were  1,182 
wage-earners  engaged  in  the  process  of  cutting  leather,  of  whom  171  were 
females,  employed  at  "skiving".  The  chief  health-hazards  were  found  to  be: 
(1)    overcrowding,    (2)    constant   standing,    (girl   skivers   stood  up   even  where 


325 

stools  were  furnished),  (3)  hurrying  piece-work  in  some  places,  (4)  mon- 
otonous application,  (o)  promiscuous  spitting,  (6)  facing  the  light  without 
protection  to  the  eyes,  (7)  some  noise,  (8)  city  smoke,  and  (9)  crude  methods 
of  heating  quarters.  In  one  large  plant  little  piece-work  was  done,  in  a  number 
of  others  only  a  part  worked  piece-work.  There  were  a  number  observed  w^ho 
were  pale,   anemic  and   otherwise  under  par. 

SOLE  LEATHER  CUTTING. —  This  process  was  investigated  in  13 
plants,  employing  278  males  (there  were  no  females  at  this  work  in  any  of 
the  places).  The  chief  health-hazards  were  (1)  overcrowding,  (2)  poor  ven- 
tilation,- (3)  piece-work  (but  this  was  relatively  limited),  and  (4)  some  con- 
tamination of  the  atmosphere  with   cement   fumes. 

FITTING    OR    STITCHING.  — In    2-5    establishments    there    were    3,295 


Fig.  97.     Boots  and  Shoes. 
Lasting  room. 


wage-earners  employed  in  this  process,  of  whom  106  were  males,  and  3.189 
females.  Sewing  machine  operations  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  work.  The 
chief  health-hazards  were:  (1)  hurrying  piece-work,  (2)  monotonous  applica- 
tion, (3)  sedentary  work,  (4)  awkward  postures,  (5)  jarring  processes,  (6) 
eye-strain,  (7)  noise,  (8)  crowding,  (9)  chairs  or  seats  without  backs,  and 
(10)  some  workers  handling  (and  breathing)  shellacs  dissolved  in  wood 
alcohol,  and  cements  dissolved  in  naphtha.  In  respect  to  the  two  poisons  last 
named,  patent  closed  containers  with  automatic  emitters  were  used  in  most 
places,  but  open  bowls  or  cups  were  present  in  others  from  which  the  vapors 


326 

pervaded  the  atmosphere  and  caused  a  considerable  amount  of  complaint  and 
evidences  of  illnesses  therefrom.  It  is  not  meant  to  state  that  all  of  the  above 
health-hazards  existed  in  all  of  the  plants,  for  in  this  respect  the  plants  have 
alread}^  been  graded  in  respect  to  these  in  the  first  table  given  in  this  article. 
In  numbers  of  places  workers  were .  supplied  with  chairs  having  adjustable 
backs. 

LASTING.  —  The  "last"  processes  were  investigated  in  25  establish- 
ments, employing  1,632  wage-earners,  of  whom  all  but  4  were  males  (the  latter 
engaged  in  pasting  toe-boxes).  The  chief  health-hazards  were  found  to  be: 
(1)  constant  standing,  (2)  piece-work,  (3)  rather  monotonous  work,  (4) 
awkward  postures,  (5)  jarring  work,  (6)  overcrowding,  (7)  promiscuous  spit- 
ting, (8)  heat  from  warming  racks,  (9)  some  dust  in  the  atmosphere,  (10) 
noise,    (11)    a  little  steam  in  the  atmosphere,    (12)    nauseating  odors   from   fish 


Fig.  98.     Boots  axd  Shoes. 
Bottoming  room.   . 


glue,  and  (18)  the  risk  of  chronic  poisoning  from  handling  and  breathing 
cements  dissolved  in  naphtha,  and  shellacs  dissolved  in  wood  alcohol.  As 
elsewhere,  there  was  some  complaint  of  the  usual  symptoms  caused  by  these 
poisons.     In  a  number  of  places  open  containers,  only,  were  present. 

BOTTOMING  AND  BOTTOM  FINISHING.  — In  27  establishments 
there  were  2,498  wage-earners  engaged  at  the  numerous  processes  included 
under  this  title.  Of  these,  2,276  were  males,  and  222  were  females.  The  chief 
health-hazards  were:  (1)  constant  standing  for  many  workers,  (2)  hurrying 
piece-work,  (3)  dust,  composed  variously  of  leather,  blacking,  wax,  sand, 
emery,    carborundum,    bristles,    lint,    shellac,    rosin,    etc.,    which    escaped    from 


327 

poorly  hooded  polishing,  buffing  and  scouring  processes,  or  from  wheels  which 
were  not  protected  at  all,  (4)  monotonous  application,  (5)  faulty  postures, 
(G)  pressing  the  body  against  shoe  parts  to  hold  them  in  position,  (7)  eye- 
strain, (8)  jarring  or  jiggling  work,  (9)  considerable  noise,  (10)  over- 
crowding, (11)  gas  flames  without  vents  which  both  deoxidized  and  contam- 
inated the  atmosphere,  (12)  nauseating  vapors  from  blackening  in  close 
quarters,  and  (13)  the  handling  and  breathing  of  cements  dissolved  in  naphtha, 
which,  often,  were  not  in  closed  containers. 

FINISHING.  —  It  was  quite  impossible  to  divide  the  "treers"  or  "iron- 
ers"  from  the  inspectors,  stampers,  and  in  some  cases,  packers.  In  24  estab- 
lishments investigated,  there  were  a  total  of  877  wage-earners,  of  whom  249 
were  males,  and  628  were  females.  —  These  figures,  however,  are  too  high  for 
"finishers"  alone.     As  all  worked  in  the  same  quarters,  however,  their  hazards 


Fig.  99.     Boots  and  Shoes. 
Finishing  and  packing  room.     Note  exhaust  vents  on  polishing  wheels. 


were  quite  similar.  The  chief  health-hazards  were  found  to  be:  (1)  constant 
standing  by  females,  who  said  they  could  not  use  seats  and  do  the  work,  al- 
though they  got  very  tired  from  standing,  (2)  heat  from  the  ironing  process, 
which  was  done  both  by  hand  and  by  machines,  (in  1  instance,  investigators  on 
a  hot  summer  day  saw  one  girl  overcome  with  heat  in  a  plant  where  the 
ventilation  for  this  work  was  not  good),  (3)  unventilated  gas  flames  which 
both  deoxidized  and  contaminated  the  breathing  atmosphere,  (4)  hurrying 
piece-work,  (5)  monotonous  application,  (5)  faulty  postures,  (7)  some  jarring 
work,  (8)  pressing  objects  against  the  body,  (9)  eye-strain,  (10)  noise  in  some 
places,  (11)  some  dust,  (12)  overcrowding,  and  (13)  the  breathing  and  hand- 
ling of  gasoline  cleaning  solutions,  often  used  in  open  containers,  and  nauseat- 
ing and  intoxicating  polish  or  blacking  vapors,  which,  in  close  quarters,  were 
marked.     These  were  composed  of  such  substances  as  naphtha,  wood  alcohol, 


328 

amyl  compounds  and  ammonia.  In  numbers  of  instances  workers  were  with- 
out gloves,  and  suffered  from  dermatitis  in  the  poUshing  and  cleaning  work. 
"Banana  oil,"  flowed  over  patent  leather  shoes  to  cover  cracks,  was  another 
source  of  complaint.. 

WHITE  COLORING  OF  SHOES.  — This  process  was  carried  on  in  a 
few  places,  and  appeared  to  be  quite  dusty  in  some  instances,  both  from  the 
application  of  the  whiting  and  the  "kicking  up"  of  dust  from  the  drippings 
which  dried  out  on  the  floors.  There  were  no  analyses  of  this  substance  made 
to  determine  whether  lead  compounds  were  used  (which  is  said  to  be  the  case 
in  reports  from  other  sources). 

Comments.  —  The  various  hazards  above  cited  in  connection  Avith  the 
processes  in  different  places  suggest  their  own  corrections.  In  a  number  of 
places  practically  none  of  them  existed.  If  the  good  features  in  various  plants 
were  adopted  for  all,  there  would  be  a  practical  absence  of  health-hazards. — 
With  large  numbers  of  workers  employed  close  together  there  should  be  a 
careful  medical  supervision,  which  should  include  a  physical  examination  of 
all  new  employes,  as  well  as  an  inquiry  into  the  causes  of  sickness  which 
necessitate  absences  from  work.  —  The  high  death  rate  from  consumption  in 
this  industry  has  been  commented  upon  in  Part  IV.  It  is  not  peculiar  to  Ohio, 
as  reports  from  other  states  and  countries  show  the  same,  but  these  facts 
should  not  lessen  the  activity  to  fight  this  disease,  the  abolishing  of  the  causes 
of  which  would  greatly  lessen  most  other  diseases.  Readers  are  also  referred 
to  the  Bulletin  of  the  Massachusetts  State  Board  of  Health,  entitled,  "Hygiene 
of  the  Boot  and  Shoe  Industrv^"  (1912),  which  describes,  in  detail,  the  various 
methods  of  removing  dust  from  the  different  machines  and  processes,  as  well 
as  methods  to  check  up  on  the  efficiency  of  different  appliances. 

TEXTILES. 

The  processes  concerned  here  consist  of  those  in  the  winding,  knitting, 
cleaning,  fleecing,  washing,  drying  and  turning  of  fabrics  in  the  manufacture 
of  cotton  underwear  (these  employed  84  males  and  43  females  in  4  establish- 
ments), and  the  combing,  carding,  drawing,  twisting,  winding,  warping,  spin- 
ning, wefting,  weaving,  piecing,  mending,  burling  picking,  examining,  napping 
or  fleecing,  splicing,  washing  and  drying  of  fabrics  in  the  manufacture  of 
woolen  goods  (these  employed  449  males  and  1,951  females  in  3  establish- 
ments). This  sums  up  a  total  of  2,400  engaged  in  the  above  processes.  (Wool 
sorting,  washing,  scouring,  dr^ang,  and  dyeing,  as  well  as  Cloth  Cutting,  Sew- 
ing, Pressing,  etc.,  are  not  included  in  these  figures). 

In  all  places  modern  machine  methods  were  present.  There  were  no 
union  organizations.  The  general  attitude  of  the  managements  towards  the 
welfare  of  employes  appeared  excellent  in  6  places  and  fair  in  the  remaining 
1.  An  intelligent  class  of  employes  was  engaged  in  6  places,  but  a  large  per- 
centage of  ignorant  workers,  principally  foreigners,  were  employed  in  the  re- 
maining place.  Workers  appeared  to  remain  well  in  all  of  the  places  investi- 
gated and  in  most  of  them  considerable  interest  was  taken  in  the  health  and 
welfare  of  individuals.  Health  appliances  consisting  of  artificial  ventilation 
devices,  excellent  lighting  systems,  lunch  rooms,  rest  rooms,  and  sanitary  con- 
veniences obtained  in  4  places,  and  were  better  than  in  the  usual  run  of 
factory  processes  in  the  other  3  places.  Organized  instructions  along  lines  of 
health  conservation  were  given  in  1  place  and  steps  were  being  taken  in  this 


329 

direction  in  3  other  places.  There  were  no  sick  benefit  organizations  among 
the  employes  in  any  of  the  establishments.  Very  little  of  the  work  was  of 
skilled  character,  but  experience  developed  dexterity  among  many  workers. 
The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  6  places, 
but  only  fair  for  many  of  the  workers  in  the  remaining  place.  Age-group 
estimations  summed  up  as  follows:  over  45  years,  19;  between  40  and  45  years, 
265;  under  40  years,  2071.  About  25  percent  of  the  last  age-group  were  under 
20  years  of  age.  The  workday  was  9^  hours  in  1  place,  9f  hours  in  2  places, 
and  10  hours  in  the  remaining  4  places ;  the  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  5  places, 

1  hour  in  1  place,  and  J  hour  in  the  remaining  2  places. 

KNITTING. —  The  chief  health-hazards  of  the  knitting  machine  rooms 
were  as  follows:  (1)  dust  of  a  fine  lint  and  cotton  character,  which  con- 
taminated the  atmosphere  to  a  nominal  extent;  (2)  fatigue,  due  to  monotonous 
application,  continual  standing  and  walking  back  and  forth,  and  loud  noises ; 
(3)  some  liability  to  the  contraction  of  commximcable  diseases  in  some  places, 
due  to  the  use  of  common  towels  and  common  drinking  cups.  In  some  places 
spring}'  board  walks  were  provided  for  those  who  were  constantly  on  their 
feet,  —  a  great  advance  on  standing  on  cement  floors  and  the  like. 

CARDING,  COMBING,  TWISTING,  WINDING,  WARPING  AND 
DRAWING.  —  These  processes  were  investigated  in  3  large  woolen  mills.  A 
limited  amount  of  fine  wool  lint  was  present  in  the  breathing  atmosphere. 
Cleaning,  usually  dry  sweeping  or  brushing  up,  was  going  on  in  nearly  all 
places  constantly.  Humidifiers  were  used  in  one  place.  Quarters  were  some- 
times poorly  lighted.  General  room  ventilation  was  fair  to  good  in  all  places. 
It  was  much  improved  in  one  place  by  room  exhaust  fans.  Fatigue  factors 
were  such  as  constant  piece-work,  monotonous  application,  prolonged  standing, 
faulty  postures,  seats  without  back  rests  for  certain  workers,  jarring  proccesses, 
eye-strain  and  loud  noises.  The  liability  towards  contracting  communicable 
diseases  was  some  hazard  in  several  places,  due  to  promiscuous  spitting,  the 
absence  of  cuspidors,  the  use  of  common  cups  and  towels ;  also  there  was  no 
medical  examination  of  employes.  Several  cases  of  consumption  were  brought 
to  the  notice  of  the  survey  from  among  woolen  mill  operators. 

SPINNING  AND  WEAVING.  —  (WOOLEN  GOODS).  —  There  was 
less  quantity  but  the  same  type  of  dust  as  described  in  the  process  above.  Its 
accumulation  upon  the  floors  and  elsewhere  was  permitted  to  some  extent  in 

2  places.  Lighting  and  ventilation  was  not  good  in  some  rooms.  Some  were 
also  overly  warm.  Fatigue  was  probably  the  chief  hazard,  due  to  monotonous 
piece-work,  speeding  up,  long  periods  on  the  feet,  faulty  postures,  jarring 
processes,  some  eye-strain  and  a  great  amount  of  loud  noise.  The  liability  to 
contraction  of  communicable  diseases  was  the  same  as  described  elsewhere. 
Humidifiers  were  used  in  one  plant,  but  the  hazard  from  dampness  seemed 
only  a  nominal   feature. 

NAPPING  AND  FLEECING.  —  There  was  some  dust  contamination 
of  the  atmosphere  from  this  process  in  both  cotton  and  woolen  goods.  The 
process  was  partitioned  off  and'  employed  very  few  help  (men).  Quarters 
were  sometimes  warm  and  noisy. 

PICKING  AND  BURLING.  — A  considerable  number  of  girls  were 
employed  at  this  process,  the  chief  health-hazards  of  which  were  piece-work, 
some  evidence  of  speeding  up,  long  periods  on  the  feet,  while  the  hazards 
common  to   other   processes   which   were   conducted    in   the   vicinity   were   also 


330 

present.  The  work  Avas  of  quite  diversified  character,  permitting  of  walking 
back  and  forth,   stooping,   standing  upright,   and  reaching  in   all   directions. 

JOINING,  SPLICING,  AND  MENDING.  — The  principal  hazard  in 
this  process  was  that  of  fatigue  which  was  due  to  hurrying  piece-work, 
monotonous  sedentary  application,  occasionally  chairs  without  back-rests,  faulty 
postures,   and   a   certain   amount   of   eye-strain. 

WEAVING.  —  This  process  was  investigated  in  the  manufacture  of 
blankets  as  well  as  of  woolen  goods.  The  chief  hazards  were  dust  from  wool 
lint  (limited)  and  other  fibres  used  to  form  the  textiles,  the  accumulation  of 
the  same  upon  the  floors,  some  factors  of  fatigue,  and  the  liability  to  con- 
tracting communicable  diseases,  all  of  which  were  about  the  same  as  described 
for  Spinning. 

CUTTING  CLOTH.  —  In  all  textile  and  clothing  establishments  a  cer- 
tain number  of  employes  are  engaged  at  cloth  cutting  processes  under  certain 
hazards.  As  investigated  in  10  establishments  in  3  cities,  there  were  found  to 
be  employed  313  wage-earners  at  the  process,  of  whom  243  were  males  and  70, 
females.  A  large  percentage  of  the  emplo}-es  were  skilled  workers.  In  a 
number  of  places  electric  cutters,  capable  of  cutting  through  many  layers  of 
cloth  at  one  operation  were  in  use.  Age-group  estimations  showed  147  over 
40  years ;  and  very  few  under  the  age  of  20.  The  work  was  usually  done  in 
the  same  quarters  with  other  processes,  such  as  Sewing,  Pressing,  and  stock 
^keeping. 

The  chief  health-hazards  were  textile  dust  (wool,  cotton,  etc.)  which  was 
in  the  breathing  atmosphere  to  a  fair  extent  in  most  of  the  establishments,  par- 
ticularly where  the  electric  cutters  were  used.  In  2  places,  lighting  was  only 
fair,  which  was  some  feature  because  of  the  close  eye  work  necessary.  Fatigue 
was  due  to  piece-work,  constant  standing,  stooping  postures,  and  eye-strain. 
Electric  lamps  without  reflectors  were  observed  in  some  places.  The  workday 
was  from  8  to  10  hours,  with  a  noon  recess  varying  from  J  to  1  hour.  The 
liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  appeared  negligible  in  4  places, 
fairly  so  in  2  others,  but  present  in  the  remaining  4,  due  to  crowding  together 
of  workers,  the  use  of  common  towels,  common  drinking  cups,  promiscuous 
spitting  upon  the  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  the  lack  of  medical 
supervision  of  workers. 

WOOL  SORTING. — -Wool  sorting  was  found  not  to  be  an  extensive 
process  in  connection  with  the  textile  industry.  In  2  large  plants  there  were 
a  total  of  63  men  so  employed.  Practically  all  were  skilled  workers  in  1 
place.  There  were  22  estimated  as  over  40  years  of  age.  Work'  quarters  were 
hygienically  constructed  in  1  place,  but  not  so  good  in  the  remaining  place. 
Other  processes  such  as  the  washing,  scouring,  drying  and  turning  of  the  wool 
were  also  present. 

The  principal  health-hazards  were  (1)  dust,  composed  of  fine  hair  parti- 
cles and  dirt  from  the  unwashed  wool,  and  from  which  there  appeared  to  be 
little  means  of  protection.  It  was  not  of  any  considerable  amount,  however, 
but  was  fairly  constantly  present.  Quarters  were  (2)  very  dirty  and  dis- 
ordered in  1  place,  where  also  there  was  considerable  (3)  dampness  from  the 
associated  washing  process;  (4)  light  was  poor  in  1  place,  and  (5)  general 
room  ventilation  not  good,  due  to  confinement  of  quarters  and  contaminations 
of  the  air  from  the  wools  handled,  and  the  foul  odors;  (6)  fatigue  was  a 
nominal    hazard,    due    to    constant    standing    and    faulty    stooped-over    postures, 


331 

with  a  unit  piece-work  system,  as  a  rule;  (7)  the  liability  to  the  contraction 
of  'Ufool-sorters'  disease  was  carefully  inquired  into,  but  no  evidence  of  the 
same  was  found  either  in  the  present  or  past.  The  wools  handled  were  of 
both  domestic  and  foreign  origin.  Many  of  the  workers  were  informed  upon 
the  possibility  of  the  disease  from  the  handling  of  wool,  but  claimed  that 
domestic  wools  were  perfectly  safe  in  this  respect.  Neither  pulmonary  nor 
skin  symptoms  were  discovered  which  could  be  considered  as  suspicious  of 
anthrax  infection.  On  the  other  hand  there  was  considerable  spitting  upon 
the  floors  and  an  absence  of  cuspidors,  as  well  as  the  use  of  common  drinking 
cups,  common  towels,  and  in  1  place,  workers  were  very  much  crowded  to- 
gether. In  the  washing  of  the  wool  in  soda  water  there  was  a  hot,  foul  smell- 
'ing  odor  present,  associated  with   considerable   steam   and   humidity. 

CORDAGE,  TWINE  AND  JUTE. 

The  various  processes  concerned  in  the  manufacture  of  cordage,  twine, 
rope,  and  in  1  instance,  halters,  were  investigated  in  5  establishments  in  3 
cities,  where  a  total  of  510  wage-earners  were  engaged,  of  whom  434  were 
males,  and  76  were  females.  The  latter  were  employed  in  Spinning,  Twisting 
and  Balling  only.  As  the  various  conditions  of  work  were  somewhat  similar, 
a  general  summary  will  be  made  first,  after  which  the  particular  processes  will 
be  discussed. 

Methods  appeared  to  be  modern  in  all  respects  in  all  places.  There  were 
no  union  organizations.  The  general  attitude  of  employers  toward  the  health 
and  welfare  of  employes  appeared  good  in  2  places,  fair  in  2  others,  but  poor 
in  the  remaining  2.  A  fair  type  of  employes  were  engaged  in  3  places.  (Males 
were  principally  colored  persons  in  2  places.)  A  very  ignorant  and  largely 
non-English  speaking  class  were  engaged  in  the  remaining  2.  The  work  was 
practically  all  unskilled,  although  some  experience  made  certain  workers  quite 
adept.  There  were  no  devices  which  could  be  termed  health  appliances  in  any 
of  the  establishments,  nor  were  there  any  mutual  benefit  associations  nor 
organized  health  instructions.  Washing  facilities  and  toilets,  however,  were 
fair  to  good  in  all  except  one  place.  Bubbling  fountains  were  present  in  2 
places.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  good  in  2  places,  fair  in 
another,  but  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  2.  The  age-group  estimations 
summed  up  as  follows:  over  40  years,  62;  under  40  years,  448.  Of  this  latter 
number  about  20  per  cent  were  under  20  years.  The  workday  was  10  hours  in 
all  places,  with  1  hour  for  a  noon  recess  in  3  places,  and  \  hour  in  the  other  2. 
There  was  practically  no  over-time. 

Preparation  Processes.  —  These  included  opening,  breaking,  spreading, 
moistening  with  oil  (crude  and  fish),  drawing,  combing,  carding,  twisting  and 
roving  to  form  a  sliver.  The  fibres  used  were  sisal  and  manilla  hemp,  jute, 
and  chinese-jute.  The  work  was  all  done  by  males.  These  processes  were 
practically  the  same  as  far  as  healthzhazards  were  concerned.  The  chief 
hazards  were  the  excessive  amount  of  fibre  dust  and  some  dirt  arising  from 
the  material,  which  was  of  a  fine  and  irritating  character,  and  affected  the  skin, 
eyes,  and  breathing  apparatus.  It  arose  in  clouds  from  some  of  the  machines 
and  so  covered  workers  that  it  was  difficult  to  distinguish  colored  from  white 
persons.  There  were  no  mechanical  devices  to  control  this  dust.  New  work- 
ers were  particularly  affected  by  it.  It  was  said  that  only  a  few  workers  could 
stand  it.     Older  workers,  however,  were  not  so  bothered,  but  the  condition  of 


332 

pneumonoconiosis  was  certainly  present.  The  next  hazard  of  importance  was 
probably  fatigue,  which  was  practically  the  same  in  all  places,  and  was  due  to 
being  constantly  on  the  feet,  the  jar  of  machines,  the  piece-work  character  of 
the  process  and  the  loud  noise.  Chinese  jute  had  a  peculiar  foul  odor. 
Ventilation  was  poor  in  3  places,  and  quarters  quite  dark  in  2.  The  liability  to 
contracting  communicable  diseases  appeared  to  be  slight  in  2  places,  (due  to  the 
presence  of  all  necessary  sanitary  conveniences),  to  be  a  fair  risk  in  1  other 
establishment,  and  bad  in  the  remaining  2,  due  to  promiscuous  spitting  into  the 
dust  on  the  floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  and  lack  of  any  medical  super- 
vision. (The  liability  to  lock-jaw  infection  has  been  rioted  in  connection  with 
this  work  abroad.)  In  all  except  1  establishment  floors  and  quarters  were 
being  constantly  cleaned.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  would  ap- 
pear to  be  considerable  in  this  process,  due  to  the  dry,  irritating  effect  of  the 
lint  upon  the  nose  and  throat,  and  the  noisy  monotony  of  the  work. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  averaged  good  in  1  place,  fair  in 
3  others,  while  a  considerable  percentage  of  physically  sub-normal  persons 
were  employed  in  the  remaining  place.  The  chief  complaints  of  the  workers 
were  the  breathing-  of  dust  and  lint,  which  caused  coughing  and  sore  throat, 
while  it  was  said  that  skin  rash  was  sometimes  created'  by  the  oil  and  coloring 
matters  used.  Investigators  reported  several  cases  of  chronic  bronchitis,  as 
well  as  some  which  were  probably  tuberculosis.  Comments.  —  It  would  ap- 
pear that  workers  could  be  induced  to  wear  some  form  of  light  respirator. 
Exhaust  hoods  and  latticed  bases  for  machines  are  used  for  removing  dust  in 
these  processes.  Cotton  worn  in  the  ears  would  limit  deafness  and  ear  in- 
fections (from  dust).  All  employes  should  have  physical  examinations  at 
intervals,  while  any  with  a  tuberculous  tendency  or  a  consumptive  family 
history  should  not  be  allowed  to  work  in  these  processes.  According  to  Hoff- 
man (U.  S  Labor  Bulletin  No.  79)  there  is  an  excessive  death  rate  from 
consumption  in  rope  making. 

SPINNING.  —  This  process  did  not  differ  materially  from  spinning  in 
the  cotton  and  wool  textile  industry.  The  chief  hazards  were  the  excessive 
amount  of  dust  which  pervaded  the  breathing  atmosphere,  and  was  composed 
of  the  same  substances  as  above  mentioned  (except  dirt,  which  was  by  this 
time  separated  out).  The  dust  was  also  finer,  but  lighter.  Fatigue  here  was 
dependent  upon  hurrying  piece-work,  considerable  evidence  of  speeding  up,  con- 
stant standing,  jarring,  jiggling  work,  and  excessive  noise.  This  was  so 
great  that  investigators  said  they  could  not  hear  themselves  yell.  Deafness  and 
hoarseness,  were  accompaniments.  Complaints  of  the  workers  were  coughing, 
constant  standing,  skin  irritations,  from  oil  and  dust,  and  the  absence  of  gloves. 
A  considerable  amount  of  unprotected  machinery  was  observed  in  some  places. 
In  1  place  several  workers  were  inordinately  exposed  to  hemp  dust  from  a 
"hog  machine'^  used  for  stranding  and  crimping  the  fibre. 

ROPE  MAKING.  —  The  twisting  of  spun  twine  into  ropes  in  the  "rope 
walk"  quarters  was  found  to  employ  a  relatively  large  percentage  of  the 
workers  in  the  cordage  industry.  In  1  plant  about  one-fifth  of  the  employes 
were  girls.  It  was  entirely  machine  work.  Lint  and  fibre  dust  were  present 
in  the  breathing  atmosphere  in  a  fine  state  of  subdivision,  but  less  in  amount 
than  in  the  processes  described  above.  Some  piece-work  prevailed,  while  pro- 
longed standing,  jarring  and  jiggling  and  loud  noises  were  also  present. 


333 

CORDAGE  FINISHING.  —  This  process  consisted  in  starching  and  hot 
drying  of  the  twine,  and  was  done  by  men.  The  workrooms  were  somewhat 
close  and  also  quite  zvarni.     Light  was  poor  in  one  place. 

CORDAGE  "BALLING". —  The  running  of  the  twine  into  balls  created 
a  little  dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere.  It  engaged  both  girls  and  men. 
Piece-work,  monotony,  and  constant  standing  were  features. 

CORDAGE  TARRING. —  The  submitting  of  twine  to  tar  pitch  was  done 
to  a  limited  extent  by  a  few  men.  It  was  accompanied  by  the  usual  tar  odor 
which  was  made  much  worse  by  the  poor  ventilation  of  the  workroom  and 
absence  of  a  device  for  removing  the  odors  and  vapors.  The  work  was  also 
fairly  hot  for  the  summer  season.     Loud  noise  was  the  chief  fatigue  factor. 

MATTRESSES. 

The  processes  concerned  in  the  manufacture  of  mattresses,  and,  in  1 
place,  of  wadding,  or  stuffing  material  for  shaping  clothing,  were  investigated 
in  7  establishments  in  5  cities,  where  a  total  of  115  wage-earners  were  em- 
ployed at  these  processes  exclusively,  all  males.  (The  renovating  of  second- 
hand mattresses  was  not  investigated.)  The  various  sub-processes  were  felt- 
ing, filling  of  ticks  with  the  prepared  felt  and  excelsior  layers,  tying  and  fin- 
ishing up  the  ticks.  The  sewing  processes  (done  by  females)  did  not  differ 
from  Sewing  as  described  elsewhere,  except  that  they  were  apt  to  breathe  the 
dust  from  other  processes,  as  well  as  the  starch  contained  in  the  ticking. 

Modern  machine  methods  were  employed  in  all  places.  There  were  no 
unions.  The  general  attitude  of  employers  toward  the  health  and  welfare  of 
employes  and  the  intelligence  of  types  of  employes  appeared  good  in  5  places, 
and  at  least  fair  in  the  remaining  2.  In  3  places  workers  did  not  appear  to 
remain  very  well  at  the  processes.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  hoods  with 
exhaust  fans,  or  simply  room  exhaust  fans  were  present  in  5  places,  but  in  2 
of  .these  they  were  not  at  all  efficient  (in  one,  the  blower  system  was  dis- 
jointed). There  were  no  sick  benefit  associations.  The  construction  of  work 
quarters  was  good  in  2  places,  fair  in  2  others,  but  hygienically  bad  in  the  re- 
maining 3.  Age-group  estimations  showed  a  total  of  8  workers  over  40  years 
of  age,  while  about  15  per  cent  were  under  20  years.  About  one-fifth  of  the 
workers  were   more   or   less   skilled. 

The  chief  hazards  of  the  process  were  dust,  composed  of  fine  lint,  cotton, 
hair  particles,  etc.,  which  went  to  make  up  the  composition  of  "felt"  (this 
varied  considerable  in  different  instances).  Dust  was  bad  in  4  places,  and 
fairly  so  in  the  remaining  8.  In  filling  (done  by  forcing  the  prepared  felt  into 
the  tick)  and  finishing  mattresses,  much  dust  was  created  by  workers  beating 
them  into  shape.  Where  excelsior  was  used  wood  dust  was  also  added  to  the 
breathing  atmosphere,  but  as  a  rule  to  a  limited  extent.  One  plant  greatly 
limited  the  amount  of  dust  at  the  felting  machines  by  the  use  of  a  fine  spray 
of  volatile  oil  which  it  was  claimed  did  not  affect  the  material,  while  it  prac- 
tically inhibited  the  dust.  An  exhaust  system  was  also  present.  The  oil  was 
said  to  be  expensive,  and  on  this  account  not  much  used  elsewhere.  In  an- 
other plant  without  hoods  or  lint  confining  devices,  the  windows  were  kept 
shut  to  prevent  losing  some  of  the  material  by  chance  breezes.  One  or  two 
workers  in  most  plants  were  greatly  exposed  to  dust  in  the  rooms  where  the 
felting  materials  were  blown  out  of  conveyor  pipes.     Occasionally,  young  boys 


334 

were  emplo3-ed  in  this  room  where  they  breathed  the  dust,  which  was  stifling. 
Quarters  were  kept  clean  in  1  place,  fairly  so  in  another,  while  but  limited, 
attention  was  given  to  cleaning  in  the  remaining  5  places.  The  lighting  was 
poor  in  2  places  and  not  very  good  in  1  oth&r.  Outside  of  the  contamination 
of  the  air  with  the  fine  dust,  venUlation  -yvas  ordinarily  good.  Gas  stoves 
(without  outlets)  were  much  depended  upon  for  heating.  The  work  could 
not  be  considered  of  a  fatiguing  nature,  although  piece-work  and  some  mo- 
notony, with  prolonged  standing  were  involved.  There  was  more  or  less 
diversity  of  application.  The  workday  was  10  hours  in  5  places,  and  9  hours  in 
the  remaining  2.  The  noon  recess  was  J  hour  in  5  places,  and  1  hour  in  the 
remaining  2.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable  diseases  was  a  fair 
hazard  in  all  places,  and  particularly  so  in  5,  due  to  the  use  of  common  drink- 
ing cups,  common  towels,  promiscuous  spitting,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  dry 
sweeping,  and  the  liability  of  contracting  diseases  from  the  materials  handled. 
Washing  facilities  were  very  poor,  as  were  also  toilet  arrangements  in  5  estab- 
lishmetns.  There  appeared  to  be  no  risk  of  poisomng.  The  industrial  induce- 
ment to  alcoholism  was  incited  chiefly  by  the  breathing  of  fine  irritating  dust, 
and  in  some  places  b}^  the  absence  of  adequate  drinking  water  facilities. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  only  fair  for  most  of  them  in  3 
plants,  while  it  was  said  that  it  was  hard  to  retain  help  at  the  felting  work  in 
one  or  two  of  the  larger  plants.  The  chief  complaints  of  the  workers  were 
cotton  lint  which  was  constantly  in  the  air,  causing  cough,  colds,  shortness  of 
breath,  pains  in  the  chest,  and  smarting  of  the  eyes.  Poor  ventilation  was  also 
mentioned  in  some  places.  The  investigators  came  across  several  instances 
where  it  was  thought  workers  were  consurhptive  or  at  least  badly  in  need  of  a 
physical  examination  to  determine  the  presence  or  absence  of  this  disease. 
Comments.  —  In  the  wadding  company  investigated,  exhaust  fans,  ventilating 
schemes  and  dust  collection  system  were  placed  at  all  points  needed  and  ap- 
peared very  efficient.  Certain  processes  in  the  mattress  works  were  similarly 
equipped,  but  there  was  some  room  for  improvement  in  all  these  establish- 
ments. The  suggestions  above  call  attention  to  other  sanitary  and  hygienic 
features  needing  correction  to  improve  the  healthfulness  of  the  work.  Cer- 
tainly' no  workers  predisposed  to  consumption  should  be  employed  in  the  dust 
producing  manipulations   of  this   industrj^ 

FEATHER  DEPARTMENT. —  The  grinding  and  renovating  of  feathers 
by  machinery  was  very  dusty  work.  The  floors  were  covered  with  pieces  of 
feathers  and  the  ceiling  in  one  place  was  covered  an  inch  thick  with  down. 
In  spite  of  this,  one  man  was  found  who  had  been  so  employed  for  20  years 
and  had  no  complaints  to  make.  In  other  places  workers  complained  greatly 
of  coughing.  Boys  filling  pillows  stood  knee-deep  in  feathers  in  a  room  with 
windows  tightly  closed.  It  appeared  that  fine  screens  could  have  prevented  loss 
of  feathers  due  to  breezes,  had  the  windows  been  so  provided. 

PAPER. RAG  SORTING. 

Rag  sorting  has  been  considered  under  the  head  of  Junk,  but  there  is  in 
connection  with  the  paper  and  roofing  material  industry  a  considerable  number 
of  employes  engaged  in  this  preparatory  work,  and  being  in  large  establish- 
ments, they  are  under  somewhat  different  health-hazards.  Our  investigations 
covered   this   process   in   9   establishments,   where   a   total   of    153  wage-earners 


335 

were  so  employed,  of  whom  25  were  males  and  128  were  females.  There  were 
no  unions.  An  ignorant,  and  often  non-English  speaking  class  of  employes 
were  engaged  in  practically  all  places.  In  about  half  of  the  places  the  per- 
sonnel appeared  to  change  quite  frequently.  The  managerial  attitude  toward 
the  -health  and  welfare  of  this  class  of  employes  appeared  good  in  2  places, 
fair  in  4  others,  but  quite  "uninterested"  in  the  remaining  3.  There  were  no 
mechanical  devices  which  could  be  termed  health  appliances  in  any  establish- 
ment. Respirators  wer.e  furnished  in  some  places,  but  little  worn.  In  1  es- 
tablishment employes  were  privileged  to  join  a  mutual  benefit  association.  The 
general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically  good  in  2  places,  but 
not  so  in  the  remaining.  The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows : 
over  50  years,  1 ;  between  40  and  50  years,  22 ;  under  40  years,  130.  About  10 
per  cent  of  the  latter  were  under  20  years. 

The  chief  hazards  of  this  process  were  (1)  the  breathing  of  dust,  which 
was  of  practically  every  imaginable  character,  depending  upon  the  source  of 
the  rags  which  were  being  sorted.  It  was  made  much  worse  by  the  presence 
of  cutting,  grinding,  and  beating  machines.  The  work  was  necessarily  (2) 
dirty,  and  quarters  were  kept  hardly  more  cleanly  than  already  described  for 
those  working  in  junk  shops.  (3)  Lighting  was  inefficient  in  8  places,  and 
particularly  so  in  1.  The  general  (4)  ventilation  of  quarters  was  good  in  1 
place,  fair  in  2  others,  and  poor  in  the  remaining  6,  due  to  stagnation  of  the 
air,  its  contamination  and  pollution  with  dusts  and  odors,  and  the  absence  of 
ventilating  apparatus  which  was  much  needed  in  most  places.  Quarters,  how- 
ever, were  usually  sufficiently  (5)  heated  (not  always),  although  in  this  re- 
spect (6)  the  inactive  character  of  the  work,  combined  with  irregular  heating 
was  a  complaint  in  at  least  3  establishments.  (7)  Fatigue  was  some  hazard  in 
all  places,  due  chiefly  to  constant  application  under  the  tension  of  piece-work. 
Some  evidences  of  speeding  up  were  noted,  while  many  of  the  workers 
asumed  faulty,  stooping  postures,  and  positions  of  the  feet  easily  productive  of 
flat  foot.  Chairs  with  back  rests  were  provided  in  1  place.  The  workday 
was  9  hours  in  2  places,  10  hours  in  6  places,  and  12  hours  in  the  remaining 
place.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  3  places,  J  hour  in  5  places,  while  in  1 
of  the  9-hour-a-day  places  there  was  no  noon  recess  taken.  One  hour  was 
allowed  in  the  12-hour-a-day  establishm.ent.  One  place  also  had  a  night  shift 
of  men,  of  13  hours  duration.  The  liability  (8)  of  contracting  coiiunuiilcable 
diseases  was  great  in  all  places,  due  not  only  to  the  handling  of  unsterilized  or 
undisinfected  rags  and  materials  (see  under  Junk),  but  also  to  the  use  of 
common  drinking  cups,  common  towels,  very  poor  washing  facilities  and  toilet 
arrangements  (especially  for  females  in  a  number  of  places),  spitting  upon  the 
floors,  the  absence  of  cuspidors,  the  lack  of  gloves,  and,  as  elsewhere,  of  any 
medical  supervision.  The  industrial  inducement  (9)  to  stimulatism  was  con- 
siderable for  all  of  these  workers,  due  to  the  foul  nature  of  the  work,  the  dust, 
and  the  depressing  influences  of  long  hours.  The  question  of  the  propriety  of 
both  sexes  working  together  in  such  a  process  has  been  mentioned  under  Junk. 

The  general  appearance  of  this  class  of  workers  was  no  better  than  fair. 
The  chief  complaints  made  (as  elsewhere  it  was  difficult  to  get  any  of  these 
employes  to  answer  questions)  were  the  breathing  of  dust,  irritation  of  the 
nose  and  throat,  and  coughing,  due  to  the  same.  Many  workers  "claimed" 
not  to  be  affected  by  it.  Women  were  frequently  heard  coughing.  Investi- 
gators  reported  a   few  cases  who  were  probably   suffering   from   consumption. 


336 

Comments.  —  The  general  improvement  of  washing  and  toilet  facilities,  the 
supplying  of  gloves  and  of  respirators  (which  workers  should  be  compelled  to 
use  when  handling  unusually  dirty  and  dusty  rags),  the  separation  of  men 
from  women,  and  a  medical  supervision  are  all  necessary  to  improve,  the 
healthfulness  of  this  trade  process. 

RAG  CUTTING,  GRINDING,  BEATING  AND  SHAKING.  — These 
were  machine  processes  and  attended  to  by  men,  although  women  at  rag 
sorting  were  sometimes  in  the  vicinity.  The  dirtiest  and  cheapest  qualities  of 
rags  were  used  for  roofing  materials.  The  dust  created  was  usually  terrible. 
There  were  no  protection  devices  of  any  sort  in  one  place,  and  in  most  of  the 
other  hoods  and  exhaust  were  mere  makeshifts  which  were  little  effective  in 
removing  the  dust.  Respirators  where  present  were  principally  "worn  around 
the  neck."  In  1  place  green  window  shades  were  being  ground  up  and  the 
workers  were  covered  with  green  dust.  It  was  admitted  that  help  was  hard 
to  keep.  Fatigue  was  a  fair  hazard,  due  to  long  hours  at  monotonous  applica- 
tion, constant  standing,  faulty  postures,  jarring  work,  and  loud  noises  from  the 
machines.  The  general  ventilation,  light  and  sanitary  conveniences  were  about 
the  same  as  for  those  in  sorting.  The  liability  to  contracting  communicable 
diseases  was  greater  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  dust,  and,  being  all 
males,  the  greater  amount  of  spitting  about  the  floors.  Comments.  —  Good 
hoods  with  proper  exhausts,  cuspidors  and  proper  washing  facilities  are  the 
chief  needs.  Perhaps  oil  or  water  spraying  might  be  utilized  to  some  extent 
to  limit  the  dust. 

PAPER. BEATING. 

Many  workers,  especially  females  in  the  paper  industry  were  simply 
engaged  in  General  Factory  Processes. 

The  beating  process  consists  in  adding  water  to  wood  pulp,  straw,  rags 
or  paper  clippings (  sometimes  to  mixtures  of  these),  in  a  machine  called  a 
beater,  which  is  equipped  with  blades  to  help  in  the  maceration  of  the  material. 
Alum  and  rosin  are  also  added  to  give  tenacity  or  "size"  to  the  future  paper. 
Bleaching  substances   and  anilin   dyes  may  or  may  not  be  added. 

As  investigated  in  13  establishments  in  6  cities,  there  were  377  men  em- 
ployed about  the  "beaters".  About  the  same  methods  appeared  to  be  in  use 
in  all  places.  There  were  no  union  organizations.  The  general  attitude  of  the 
managements  in  regard  to  the  health  and  welfare  of  employes  appeared  good 
in  8  establishments,  air  in  3  others,  but  quite  indifferent  in  the  remaining  2. 
The  same  proportions  obtained  in  respect  to  t3'pe  of  employes  engaged.  In  at 
least  4  establishments  workers  appeared  to  be  difficult  to  retain  at  this  process. 
Three  plants  were  equipped  with  shower  baths.  In  2  establishments  there  were 
mutual  benefit  associations,  and  in  1,  some  organized  instruction  was  given  in 
matters  of  health  conservation.  About  h  of  the  workers  were  semi-skilled,  the 
balance  being  unskilled  labor.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was 
hygienically  good  in  6  instances,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  7.  Age-group  es- 
timations summed  up  as  follows:  over  40  years,  19;  under  40  years,  358.  Of 
this  latter  group  a  small  percentage  were  under  20  years  of  age. 

The  process  itself  was  unaccompanied  by  dust,  but  the  emptying  of 
barrels  of  alum  and  rosin  and  the  shoveling  of  the  same  created  some  very 
objectionable  dust.  In  6  places  dust  was  undoubtedly  a  hazard  to  some,  and 
particularly   so  in  3   of  these.     There  was   an   absence   of   efficient  mechanical 


337 

means  of  handling  it.  Quarters  were  allowed  to  be  filled  up  with  dirt  and 
waste  accumulations  in  5  establishments.  The  work  was  necessarily  of  a  wet 
and  sloppy  character,  so  that  dampness  was  a  hazard  in  all  places,  and  par- 
ticularly so  in  9  of  them.  It  was  due  to  water  upon  the  floors,  occasionally  to 
steam,  and  to  the  humidity  of  the  workrooms.  Employes  in  many  establish- 
ments were  accustomed  to  going  barefooted.  This,  combined  with  walking 
upon  cold,  cement  floors,  in  drafty  rooms  was  very  detrimental  to  health.  It 
was  claimed  that  boots  were  objectionable,  caused  sore  feet,  etc.,  but  why  this 
should  be  any  more  so  than  in  rubber  works,  breweries,  etc.,  is  not  clear.  In 
4  establishments  lighting  was  inefficient,  so  that  this  hazard  was  also  added  to 
dampness.  Torches  were  used  in  one  plant.  The  general  ventilation  of  work- 
rooms appeared  good  in  G  places,  fair  in  3  more,  but  poor  in  the  remaining  4, 
due  to  stagnation  of  the  atmosphere  and  its  pollution  with  vapors  arising 
from  the  process.  In  3  establishments  heat  was  some  hazard,  and  particularly 
so  in  1,  due  to  steam  and  close  confinement.  The  question  of  fatigue  was 
principally  one  of  long  hours  as  there  appeared  to  be  no  laborious  work  of 
continuous  character.  (See  under  the  next  process.)  The  liability  to  contract- 
ing communicable  diseases  appeared  negligible  in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  3  or  4 
more,  but  considerable  in  the  remaining  7  or  8.  The  chief  reasons  for  this 
were  the  use  of  common  drinking  cups,  poor  washing  facilities  (sometimes 
none  present)  and  closets,  the  handling  of  materials  (rags,  paper)  which  might 
carry  infection,  and  in  some  places  the  use  of  polluted  canal  water  for  various 
processes,  which  wet  the  quarters  where  workers  went  barefooted,  etc.  The 
risk  of  industrial  poisoning  appeared  a  limited  hazard  in  all  places,  due  to 
alum  dust,  rosin  dust  (while  handling)  and  escaping  chlorine  fumes  from 
bleaching  processes.  In  addition,  anilin  dyes  were  occasionally  used,  but  with 
little  apparent  hazard.  The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  chiefly 
dependent  upon  the  depressing  influence  of  dampness,  wet  and  sloppy  work, 
irritating  dusts  and   fumes,  and  the  weariness   of  long  hours. 

The  physical  appearance  of  workers  was  about  average.  A  number  of 
men  who  were  under  par,  and  probably  suffering  from  chronic  diseases,  were 
seen.  There  were  very  frequent  complaints  of  catching  cold,  and  of  rheuma- 
tism, while  a  few  complained  of  irritations  of  the  nose,  throat,  scrotum,  groins 
and  skin,  from  alum  dust,  and  of  other  affections  from  the  poisons  used.  Our 
investigators  reported  several  cases  of  undoubted  tuberculosis,  and  1  or  2  of 
dermatitis.  Comments.  —  Outside  of  improvements  in  sanitary  conveniences 
in  a  number  of  places,  the  most  objectionable  feature  was  the  habit  of  the 
workers  in  going  about  barefooted.  Certainly  it  would  appear  that  proper 
boots  and  aprons  should  be  provided;  also  gloves  and  respirators  to  be  put  on 
when  necessary  to  be  exposed  to  dusts  or  solutions.  Medical  supervision  would 
greatly  reduce   sickness   and  hazards. 

PAPER. MACHINE  ROLLING. 

After  the  pulp  has  been  prepared  in  the  beater  room  and  has  been 
screened  to  remove  any  lumps  which  may  be  present,  it  is  put  through 
machines,  which  roll  the  pulp  into  sheets  and  dry  the  same.  This  process  was 
investigated  in  13  establishments  and  was  found  to  engage  372  wage-earners,  all 
males.  The  process  was  very  much  the  same  in  all  places,  whether  paper  or 
roofing  material  was  being  made.     There  were  no  unions.     The  general  attitude 

22    o.  D. 


338 

toward  the  health  and  welfare  of  employes,  the  type  of  employes,  and  the  re- 
tention at  the  process  did  not  differ  materialy  from  what  has  already  been 
said  for  those  in  the  beater  room.  In  6  of  the  establishments  there  were  hoods 
and  exhaust  systems  placed  over  the  machines  which  quite  effectively  removed 
the  steam  and  heat  escaping  from  same.  They  were,  however,  entirely  absent 
in  the  remaining  7  establishments.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters 
was  good  in  5  places,  fair  in  2  others,  but  not  good  in  the  remaining  6.  In 
only  1  place  were  there  other  processes  present.  Here  the  Sorting  of  Rags 
was  being  done  by  females.  The  age-group  estimations  showed  27  over  40 
years ;  and  345  under  40,  with  a  relatively  small  percentage  under  20  years. 
Dust  was  no  feature  of  the  process.  Quarters  were  kept  clean  and  orderly 
in  7  establishments,  fairly  so  in  another,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  As  in 
the  beater  room,  this  work  was  accompanied  with  a  great  deal  of  water  upon 
the  floors,  steam  in  the  air,  and  general  dampness  of  the  quarters.  In  but  "1 
place  was  this  not  so,  while  in  9  places  it  constituted  a  marked  hazard  to 
health.  Quarters  were  well  lighted  in  7  establishments,  usually  by  skylights, 
saw-tooth  roofs,  etc.,  and  in  a  number  of  places  amber  glass  was  used,  which 
gave  a  very  pleasant  effect  to  the  workroom.  In  the  remaining  6  establish- 
ments, light  was  not  good,  and  particularly  so  in  1,  where  it  was  difficujt  to 
see  about  the  room,  and  very  dangerous  on  account  of  exposed  machinery. 
The  general  ventilation  of  quarters  was  good  in  6  establishments,  fairly  so  in 
4  more,  but  not  so  in'  the  remaining  3,  due  to  stagnation  of  the  atmosphere, 
contamination  with  steam  and  vapors  from  the  process,  both  of  which  were 
the  result  of  the  absence  of  exhaust  hoods  and  means  of  changing  the  air. 
Heat  is  a  necessary  feature  of  the  process,  but  because  of  excellent  local 
ventilation  about  the  hot  rolls,  it  was  no  hazard  in  3  establishments  and  but  a 
nominal  hazard  in  5  others,  but  the  remaining  5  places  were  unduly  hot.  In 
most  of  these  latter,  also,  there  were  but  limited  facilities  for  washing.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  number  of  the  better  equipped  establishments  had  shower 
baths  at  hand.  The  liability  to  chilling  was  present  in  a  number  of  places,  due 
to  the  fact  that  the  employes  preferred  to  work  in  their  bare  feet.  The  work 
itself  was  not  at  all  fatiguing  and  there  appeared  to  be  plenty  of  variation. 
Unusually  long  hours,  however,  were  present  in  many  places.  The  workday 
was  10  hours  in  2  places,  11  hours  in  2  places,  12  hours  in  2  places,  12J  hours 
in  1  place,  and  from  11  to  13  hours  in  the  remaining  6  places,  the  latter  in- 
fluenced by  the  double  work  shift  for  24  hours.  These  shifts  changed  from 
day  work  to  night  work  and  vice  versa  once  a  week.  This  frequent  change  was 
very  much  objected  to  by  numbers  of  workers  who  stated  that  they  did  not 
get  used  to  sleeping  properly  before  it  was  necessary  to  again  change  the  work 
shift.  Many  of  them  stated  they  would  rather  work  continuously  nights  or 
days  for  a  much  longer  period.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  1  place,  J 
hour  in  4  places,  "as  desired"  in  4  places,  absent  in  2  places  (and  not  reported 
upon  in  the  remaining  2).  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  communicable 
c?ijeaj^.y  appeared  practically  negligible  in  3  places,  fairly  so  in  3  others,  but 
bad  in  the  remaining  7,  the  latter  due  to  the  same  conditions  as  described 
under  the  beating  process.  The  liability  to  poisoning  seemed  very  remote. 
The  industrial  inducement  to  alcoholism  was  rather  less  than  that  described  for 
"beating",  as  dust  and  poisons  were  absent  in  this  process. 

The    general    appearance    of    workers    was    the    same    as    stated    for    the 
beaters.     The  only  complaints  made  outside  of  the  irregularity  and  length  of 


339 

working  hours  were  the  water,  steam  and  humidity  in  some  of  the  plants,  with 
the  consequent  subjection  to  rheumatism,  coughs  and  colds.  Investigators  re- 
ported 1  case  of  acute  inflammatory  rheumatism.  Comments. —  (See  under 
the  preceding  process.) 

MIXING  AND  .MANUFACTURING  OF  CHEMICALS. —  There  were 
hazards  from  irritating  dusts,  and  fumes  and  smoke,  in  the  preparation  of 
bleaching  solutions  (chlorine),  sizing  mixtures  (alum,  soda  ash,  rosin),  neu- 
tralizers  (lime),  saturating  compounds  (petroleum,  asphaltum,  tar,  smoke,  etc.) 
and  in  sodium  hydroxide  recovery  processes  (sodium  carbonate,  lime),  —  most 
of  which  were  the  cause  of  various  skin,  respiratory  and  digestive  complaints. 
Only  a  comparatively  few  workers  were  so  employed.  (See  Mixing  Chemicals 
elsewhere.) 

OIL   REFINING. 

The  refining  of  petroleum  was  investigated  in  4  establishments,  and  lin- 
seed oil  in  1  establishment.  The  products  of  manufacture  consisted  of  petrol 
naphtha  (and  gasoline),  illuminating  oils,  lubricating  oils,  greases,  paraflfin,  tar 
and  coke,  and,  in  the  linseed  works,  boiled  oil.  The  large  majority  of  the 
workers  were  simply  laborers  engaged  in  and  about  the  distilling  and  refining 
works.  In  even  the  largest  plants  but  a  few  skilled  men  were  employed.  In 
the  5  establishments  there  were  251  wage-earners,  all  males,  employed  im- 
mediately in  the  processes  described  below.  Practically  everything  was 
handled  by  the  most  modern  devices,  whereby  most  materials  were  confined 
and  moved  from  place  to  place  by  means  of  pumps  and  piping,  so  that  workers 
had  little  to  do  outside  of  watching  the  machinery,  and  the  opening,  clean- 
ing and  closing  of  stills  and  tanks.  There  were  no  unions.  The  general 
interest  of  the  managements  in  the  welfare  of  employes  appeared  good  in 
2  places  and  at  least  fair  in  the  remaining  3.  While  a  certain  percentage  of 
foreigners  were  found  who  could  not  speak  English,  practically  all  workers 
were  of  an  intelligent  type,  many  were  old  employes,  and  retention  appeared 
good  at  all  places.  In  addition  to  the  various  forms  of  confining  apparatus, 
hoods  and  exhausts  were  generally  present  where  needed.  There  were  no 
mutual  benefit  asociations,  although  a  pension  plan  existed  in  3  of  the  places. 
There  were  no  instructions  given  along  the  lines  of  conservation  of  health. 
The  general  construction  of  buildings  was  hygienically  good  in  2  places,  fair 
in  2  others,  but  poor  in  the  remaining  establishment.  In  this  respect  a  large 
percentage  of  the  operations  were  simply  outdoor  in  character.  There  were 
usually  separate  buildings  or  places  for  different  operations.  Age-group  esti- 
mations for  those  concerned  in  the  process  described  showed  64  over  40 
years,  and  187  under  40  years,  of  whom  about  5  to  10  per  cent  were  under 
20  years. 

General  health-hazards  were  limited.  Many  persons  were  exposed  to 
the  inclemencies  of  the  weather;  washing  facilities  and  closets  were  very 
poor  in  2  places,  and,  in  some  quarters,  in  a  third  place;  there  were  good 
first-aid  and  hospital  arrangements  present  in  the  larger  places;  promiscuous 
spitting  (indoors),  and  the  absence  of  cuspidors  were  general  observations. 
Long  hours  prevailed  for  numbers  of  workers  in  all  places.  A  common  ar- 
rangement was  an  11-hour  day  and  13-hour  night  shift.  Noon  recess  periods 
varied  from  ^  to  1  hour.  There  were  plenty  of  opportunities  for  rest  periods 
for  most  workers,  however,  in  the  processes  described  below. 


340 

RECEIVING  THE  CRUDE  PRODUCTS.  —  These  were  received  at 
the  works  usually  by  pipe  lines.  There  was  an  odor  of  hydrocarbons 
(methane?)  and  of  hydrogen  sulphide  present  in  some  places,  but  not 
hazardous  except  when  leaks  occurred.  It  was  reported  that  cases  of  sore 
eyes,  due  to  the  products,  were  not  infrequent. 

DISTILLING,  REFINING  AND  SPECIAL  PROCESSES.— These  in- 
clude the  purification  of  the  petroleum  with  sulphuric  acid  and  its  neutraliza- 
tion with  caustic  soda;  later  decolorization  of  oils  and  greases  with  Fuller's 
earth,  etc.,  and  deodorizing  with  hydrochloric  acid  and  calcium  chloride. 
Fumes,  apparently  of  hydrogen  sulphide,  sulphur  dioxide,  and  sprays  of 
sulphuric  acid  were  noted.  Ventilation  was  poor  in  some  of  these  quarters 
so  that  the  men  complained  of  the  effects  of  these  fumes.  There  was  a  little 
risk  to  men  who  tested  the  acid.  There  was  some  dampness  due  to  steam 
from  open  pans  of  sulphuric  acid.  Acid  fumes  were  also  very  irritating  in 
tar  recovering,  although  the  product  was  turned  into  large  (open)  vats  out- 
of-doors.  In  one  place  hoods  were  provided.  In  some  places  there  were  no 
fans  and  there  was  considerable  risk  when  retorts  were  opened  and  residues 
removed,  especially  due  to  sulphur  dioxide.  Lead  oxide  was  among  the  sub- 
stances added  to  the  oil,  being  shoveled  into  the  open  vats.  This  was  only 
done,  however,  at  intervals.  Dust  was  reported  bad  in  a  desulphurizing 
process  using  a  mixture  of  copper,  lead  and  iron  oxides,  while  heat  was  con- 
siderable from  washing  of  the  copper  sulphide  formed  to  recover  the  copper 
oxide.  In  the  saponification  of  oil  with  lime  water  there  was  a  little  damp- 
ness, due  to  water,  and  considerable  noise  from  machinery.  LEAD  BURNERS 
who  repaired  lead-lined  tanks  or  vats  ran  the  risk  of  lead  poisoning  described 
elsewhere. 

FILTERING  AND  PRESSING. —  The  residues  were  here  s<?parated  into 
heavy  oils,  greases  and  paraffin.  A  temperature  of  50°  F.  was  maintained  in 
some  of  the  operations.  The  men  worked  in  this  "cold  room"  only  about  three 
hours  on  a  shift,  but  had  risk  from  alternation  with  the  warmer  outdoors.  Here 
paraffin  was  obtained  by  big  presses.  It  was  conveyed  to  a  sweating  chamber, 
where  it  was  heated  and  filtered.  It  was  all  machine  work  and  the  men  did 
not  come  very  much  into  contact  with  the  products.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
development  of  paraffin  cancer  has  been  found  to  occur  in  the  handlers  of  the 
crude  heavy  products  as  well  as  considerable  dermatitis  and  acne.  There  was 
considerable  odor  in  connection  with  this  work,  as  well  as  some  dampness  and 
humidity.  Ammonia  fu-mes  in  limited  amount  were  noticeable  in  the  engine 
room  of  the  cooling  plant.  The  boiling  down  of  wool  greases  to  add  to 
lubricating  oils  created  a  vile  stench.  In  the  case  of  linseed  oil,  the  building 
was  poorly  lighted  and  the  floors  covered  with  accumulations.  The  grinding 
of  the  flaxseed  was  very  dusty,  as  was  also  the  sacking  of  the  flaxseed  meal. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  BOILED  OIL. —  In  1  plant  this  was  done  only  at 
intervals  and.  consisted  in  the  mixing  of  litharge,  white  lead  and  manganese 
with  linseed  oil,  the  kettle  being  placed  out-of-doors  under  a  roof.  (See  also 
Oilcloth  and  Linoleum   Manufacture.) 

CHEMICALS. 

The  manufacture  of  chemicals  was  only  partly  investigated  in  the  state. 
The  great  variability  of  the  products  would  make  it  necessary  to  consider  each 
establishment  almost  by  itself   as   far  as   the  risk  to  poisoning  is   concerned. 


341 

The  intention  here  is  to  limit  the  discussion  to  those  firms  truely  engaged  in 
the  manufacturing  of  chemical  ingredients  and  not  in  the  mixing  of  chemical 
ingredients,  which  has  been  taken  up  elsewhere.  In  6  establishments  investi- 
gated there  were  a  total  of  1,375  employes.  The  companies  ranged  in  number 
of  employes  from  8  and  18  to  550.  Of  these  wage-earners,  however,  only  430 
(all  males)  were  engaged  in  the  processes  themselves.  The  working  conditions 
as  concern  these  process-workers  were  separated  out  and  are  here  described. 

In  3  of  the  establishments  modern  methods  and  fairly  modern  conditions 
of  work  appeared  to  exist,  but  for  the  other  3  this  could  not  be  said.  There 
were  no  unions  in  any  of  the  establishments.  The  general  interest  in  the 
health  and  welfare  of  employes  appeared  good  in  3  establishments  and  poor 
in  the  remaining  3.  A  large  percentage  of  foreigners,  usually  non-English- 
speaking  were  employed  in  all  of  the  establishments,  but  the  general  type  was 
good  in  2  places.  'Workers  appeared  to  remain  fairly  well  in  3  of  the  places, 
while  there  was  a  continual  change  in  the  personnel  in  the  remaining  3.  Devices 
which  might  be  termed  health  appliances  were  practically  absent  in  4  of  the 
establishments,  while  the  remaining  2  were,  at  the  time  of  inspections,  either 
equipped  or  making  renovations  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  law  for  the 
prevention  of  lead  poisoning,  the  specifications  of  which  allow  until  October  1, 
1915,  to  be  completely  met.  In  2  establishments  instructions  were  given  con- 
cerning the  danger  to  health  from  the  chemicals  involved,  and  the  rules  of 
personal  hygiene  to  be  observed,  while  health  placards  were  posted  in  3  plants. 
There  were  no  mutual  benefit  associations  in  connection  with  any  of  the  plants. 
The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  fair  to  good  in  4  establish- 
ments, but  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  2.  In  the  smaller  plates,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  larger,  workers  in  1  process  were  exposed  to  the  hazards 
present  in  ano'ther.  Very  little  skilled  work  was  required  of  wage-earners.  Age- 
group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows:  over  40  years,  69;  under  40  years, 
361.  Of  the  latter  age-group  about  10  per  cent  were  under  20  years.  —  The 
workday  was  three  8-hour  shifts  in  1  establishment,  8  to  9  hours  in  another, 
10  hours  in  3  others,  and  12  hours  in  another  (large)  establishment.  The  noon 
recess  was  %  hour  in  3  places,  1  hour  in  another,  "odd  times"  in  another,  and 
"no  time"  in  the  remaining  place.  The  health-hazards  in  connection  with  the 
various  manufacturing  processes  are  given  in  brief  below : 

POTASSIUM  FERROCYANIDE.  —  Light  and  ventilation  were  from  the 
ceiling  only.  The  floor  was  chiefly  of  dirt,  with  some  rough  boarding.  The 
furnaces,  tanks  and  all  processes  were  in  the  same  work  area.  There  was 
inadequate  ventilation  and  light,  and  some  parts  were  very  damp.  Sanitary 
arrangements  were  primitive.  The  only  heating  arrangements  were  the  furnaces 
themselves.  Spitting  was  promiscuous.  Scrap  leather  was  burned  with  potash 
and  iron  to  furnish  the  nitrogen.  There  was  considerable  odor  of  ammonia 
fumes  and  hydrogen  sulphide.  Some  smoke  was  also  present.  In  spite  of 
these  hazards  the  workers  all  denied  sickness  and  looked  healthy.  They  had 
been  present  from  one  month  to  several  years. 

SODIUM  CARBONATE  AND  BICARBONATE. —  These  processes 
were  investigated  in  2  establishments.  In  the  smaller  place  the  crystallizing 
room  was  located  in  a  dark,  cool,  damp  basement,  which  was  apparently  never 
cleaned  and  doors  were  very  prevalent.  The  evaporation  quarters  on  the 
second  floor  were  somewhat  better,  although  ventilation  provisions  were  poor 
and  the  room  was  warm.     Fortunately  the  workers  were  not  engaged  in  any 


342 

one  department  continuously.  On  the  other  hand,  they  were  subject  to  the 
effects  of  going  from  the  cool  basement  to  the  warm  quarters  above.  —  In  the 
large  establishment  the  engine  room  was  not  separated  from  the  process  (Sol- 
vay)  and  was  extremely  warm.  The  floors  were  damp  through  being  con- 
tinually wet.  There  was  considerable  dtist  of  the  bicarbonate  in  the  air,  quar- 
ters were  dark  through  the  insufficiency  of  windows,  and  the  air  contaminated 
with  ammonia  and  hydrogen  sulphide  fumes  to  a  fair  extent,  while  heat  (the 
places  were  visited  in  the  summer  season)  was  intense.  —  The  sodium  car- 
bonate furnace  quarters  were  hot  and  •  dusty,  the  dust  created  especially  by 
men  shoveling  the  bicarbonate.  Closets  were  in  outbuildings  and  men  expe- 
rienced great  variations  in  temperature  (according  to  the  season)  in  getting 
to  them.  The  closets  themselves  were  modern  and  clean.  Washing  facilities 
did  not  include  shower  baths,  and  for  most  workers  only  cold  water  was 
available. 

WHITING.  —  The  grinding  up  of  calcium  carbonate  to  make  "whiting" 
was  a  very  dusty  process  and  everything,  including  the  men,  was  covered  with 
dust. 

LIME  BURNING.  —  Lime  was  burned  to  secure  the  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  kilns  for  use  in  the  Solvay  process.  Conditions  were  better  than  described 
for  Lime  Burning  elsewhere,  because  the  gas  was  recovered. 

LIME  SLAKING.  —  The  quarters  were  hot  and  wet,  but  risk  of  poison- 
ing seemed  negligible. 

SODIUM  HYDROXIDE.  — The  quarters  were  hot,  the  floor  wet  and  the 
atmosphere  humid.  It  was  said  that  in  the  winter  one  could  not  see  across  the 
room  on  acount  of  escaping  steam.  In  the  quarters  where  the  caustic  soda  was 
ground  up  and  packed  into  large  cans,  men  wore  gloves  and  gauze  hoods  over 
the  head,  but  this  protection  was  not  sufficient.  The  dust  and  fumes  were  bad. 
The  men  also  suffered  from  frequent  burns.  It  appeared  to  be  a  dangerous 
occupation.  Goggles  were  about  to  be  supplied.  The  men  had  good  washing 
facilities    and    closets. 

LIME  RECOVERY.  —  The  heating,  drying,  grinding  and  sacking  of  used 
lime,  while  it  employed  but  few  men,  was  in  a  room  which  was  extremely  hot 
and  dusty. 

CALCIUM  CHLORIDE.  —  There  were  no  important  health-hazards  so 
far  as   could  be   determined  in  this  process. 

WHITE  LEAD  AND  LEAD  OXIDES.  — The  old  Dutch  process  of 
making  white  lead  (see  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  No.  95)  exists  in  2  large  estab- 
lishments in  the  state,  both  of  which  are  covered  by  the  Law  for  the  Preven- 
tion of  Occupational  Diseases  with  Special  Reference  to  Lead  Poisoning,  which 
was  passed  by  the  Legislature  of  1913.  As  the  exact  character  of  precautions 
and  health  appliances  are  specified  in  this  enactment,  and  as  investigations 
showed  that  conditions  in  the  one  were  equal  to,  if  not  in  advance  of  the  law, 
and  that  in  the  other  they  were  being  gradually  adhered  to,  a  discussion  of  the 
various  health-hazards  found  will  be  omitted.  To  the  Industrial  Commission 
of  the  State  has  been  given  the  enforcement  of  the  statutory  provisions,  and 
the  Commission  was  seeing  to  the  execution  of  orders  during  the  course  of 
the  Board  of  Health  survey.  The  reporting  of  occupational  diseases  to  the 
State  Board  of  Health  is  also  required  by  the  examining  physicians  required 
to  be  in  attendance  at  these  works.  During  the  course  of  the  survey  there 
was  a  total  of  29  cases  of  lead  poisoning  reported  from  these  two  works.    Most 


343 

of  these  were  first  attacks,  and  had  been  discovered  by  the  examining  physician 
before  they  reached  a  degree  of  marked  severity.  A  considerable  number  of 
them,  however,  were  severe  hospital  cases,  one,  at  least,  resulting  fatally.  As 
is  the  rule  in  this  industry  everywhere,  the  casual  workers  suffered  from  acute 
lead  poisoning  probably  five  or  six  times  more  often  than  steady  employes. 
(The  State  Board  of  Health  will  supply  a  copy  of  "The  Laws  of  Ohio,  Relating 
to  Occupational  Diseases  and  Industrial  Hygiene,"  which  contains  the  above 
mentioned  law  and  others,  upon  receipt  of  a  two-cent  stamp  for  postage.  It  is 
to  be  regretted  that  the  "lead  law"  covers  only  the  manufacture  of  certain  lead 
compounds  and  really  applies  to  only  2  establishments  in  the  state,  since  the 
subsequent  handling  of  the  lead  ingredients  in  all  manner  of  industries  and 
processes  is,  in  many  instances,  just  as  dangerous  to  the  workers  as  is  their 
manufacture.) 

SULPHURIC  ACID.  —  Reports  are  at  hand  from  2  establishments.  From 
one  of  these  several  cases  of  lead  poisoning  have  been  reported  in  the  crush- 
ing and  roasting  of  ores,  as  well  as  complaints  from  the  vicinity  on  account 
of  the  escaping  fumes.  A  company  physician  was  put  in  charge  and  hazards 
appear  to  be  well  in  hand.  In  the  other  place  there  was  a  great  deal  of  dust 
from  the  roasting  of  the  ores,  no  control  of  which  was  attempted,  although 
workers  were  supplied  with  respirators  and  goggles.  It  was  stated  that  there 
was  great  difficulty  in  retaining  help  at  the  process.  In  the  nitrating  quarters 
there  were  some  fumes  of  sulphur  dioxide  and  nitrous  oxide,  more  prevalent 
at  times  than  others,  but  the  workers  made  no  complaints.  All  sanitary  con- 
veniences and  drinking  water  facilities  were  very  poor  in  this  place. 

AMMONIUM  CHLORIDE.  —  Coal-gas  liquor  was  used  for  the  source  of 
ammonia,  from  which  there  was  considerable  emanation  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
and  other  fumes.  These  were  said  to  be  much  worse  at  times  and  caused  com- 
plaint of  headache  and  nausea. 

ZINC  CHLORIDE.  —  One  of  the  two  fusing  tanks  was  not  well  ven- 
tilated, and  allowed  f nines  of  hydrochloric  acid  to  escape  which  were  irritating 
to  the  throat  and  eyes.  Severe  burns  were  said  to  occur  occasionally,  which 
were  difficult  to  heal. 

GRINDING  ORES.  —  The  mill  quarters  were  very  dusty  and  no  special 
provisions  were  made  for  ventilation. 

LEAD  BURNINGS.  —  In  the  various  lead  chambers  and  towers  in  the 
manufacture  of  sulphuric  acid  were  employed  a  few  lead  burners  whose  duty 
it- is  to  repair  the  great  lead-lined  chambers  and  conduits.  One  case  of  lead 
poisoning  was  reported  in  a  lead  burner  from  one  of  these  chemical  works,  as 
well  as  other  hearsay  cases.     (See  Lead  Burning  under  Soldering.) 

MATCHES. 

It  is  not  intended  to  go  into  the  details  of  the  industrial  hygiene  of  the 
three  match  factories  investigated  in  the  state,  since  these  have  been  effectively 
covered  in  the  report  made  by  Dr.  John  B.  Andrews,  and  contained  in  U.  S. 
Labor  Bulletin  No.  86.  According  to  this  report,  the  Ohio  factories,  with  the 
exception  of  one  small  place  in  which  conditions  were  fair,  were  models  even 
before  the  passage  of  the  national  enactment  prohibiting  the  manufacture  of 
these  lucifer  matches  after  July  1st,  1913.  One  of  these  plants  is  the  largest  in 
the  United  States.     Our  investigators  found  conditions  even  better  at  this  time 


344 

than  given  in  the  above  report.  At  present  the  various  processes  have  practically 
no  other  hazards  than  those  of  general  factory  work,  while  the  employes  were 
under  much  better  conditions  of  work  and  health  supervision  than  has  been 
stated  for  employes  in  General  Factory  Processes.  We  note  below  such  hazards 
as  were  observed : 

MIXING  INGREDIENTS.  —  This  process  was  found  to  be  accompanied 
with  steam  and  dampness,  and  in  some  instances  the  breathing  of  pulverized 
glass  dust,  no  respirators  being  worn  when  shoveling  materials.  Anilin  dyes, 
potassium  chlorate,  potassium  dichromate,  and  rosin,  were  the  principal  dusts 
concerned.  There  was  an  odor  of  hydrogen  sulphide  gas  when  the  cans  of 
sesquisulphide  of  phosphorus  were  opened,  and  also  during  the  cleaning  or  from 
paste  on  composition  receptacles.  This  was  a  source  of  some  complaint  in  the 
neighborhood. 

GLASS  GRINDING. —  This  was  work  done  only  at  intervals,  and  created 
a  great  deal  of  dust.  Howeiver,  local  exhausts  took  care  of  the  most  of  it, 
while  respirators  were  furnished,  as  well  as  goggles,  but  insistence  upon  their 
use  was  not  enforced  in  1  establishment. 

THE  MATCH  MAKING  PROCESS.  — This  employed  the  vast  majority 
of  workers.  It  was  apparently  free  from  hazards  with  the  exception  of  some 
quarters  in  an  old  type  of  building  which  were  hot  and  rather  dark,  and  only 
fairly  well  ventilated.  Two  establishments  had  most  of  the  quarters  equipped 
with  an  air-conditioning  system.  On  the  day  in  which  investigations  were 
made  in  1  place  the  temperature  was  80°  outside,  but  was  being  maintained  at 
70°  within. 

Comments. — While  piece-work  was  the  rule,  and  monotonous  applica- 
tion, sometimes  in  sedentary  or  inactive  work,  the  general  conditions  of  work 
were  excellent,  and  speeding  up  was  not  apparently  resorted  to.  Industrial 
health-hazards  appeared  practically  negligible. 

EXPLOSIVES  AND   AMMUNITION. 

The  manufacture  of  explosives  and  ammuition,  including  cartridges,  caps, 
electric  fuses,  blasting  powder,  sporting  powder,  and  nitroglycerine  was  in- 
vestigated in  7  establishments  located  in  6  vicinities.  The  actual  number  em- 
ployed at  the  processes  below  described  was  303  wage-earners,  of  whom  51 
were  females.  The  balance  were  empldyd  in  various  auxiliary  processes.  The 
females  (included)  were  all  employed  in  1  plant  in  the  loading  of  cartridges 
(females  were  also  employed  in  other  departments  in  this  plant).  The  4  plants 
which  made  blasting  powder  covered  large  areas  of  ground  with  widely  separated 
small  buildings  in  each  of  which  but  2  or  3  men  were  employed.  All  of 
these  plants  were  excellently  equipped  with  washing  facilities  and  men  (at 
powder  mills  especially)  were  required  to  bathe  daily  at  the  completion  of 
work.  There  were  no  unions.  The  general  attitude  toward  workers'  welfare 
seemed  good  in  all  places.  An  intelligent  class  of  workers  was  employed  in 
all  the  processes  in  2  places,  while  a  considerable  percentage  of  ignorant,  and, 
in  some  instances,  non-English-speaking  foreigners  were  employed  in  other 
places.  Workers  appeared  to  remain  well  at  the  processes.  There  were  no 
sick  benefit  organizations,  although  various  pension  arrangements  to  widows 
and  dependents  in  case  of  accidents  to  workers  were  in  vogue  previous  to  the 
State   Compensation  Act.     Age-group   estimations   for  the  processes   concerned 


345 

showed  70  over  40  years,  and  233  under  40  years,  of  whom  a  considerable 
number  (of  the  females  especially)  were  under  20  years.  The  workday  was 
9  hours  in  3  places,  10  hours  in  8  others,  while  work  was  done  only  at  intervals 
in  the  nitroglycerin  establishment.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  3  places 
and  J  hour  in  the  other  3.  The  general  appearance  of  workers  was  fair  to 
good  in  the  various  processes  in  4  places,  but  a  considerable  number  of  un- 
healthy looking  men  were  found  in  some  of  the  processes  in  the  remaining 
2  places. 

BLASTING  POWDER  GRINDING.  — This  powder,  composed  of  char- 
coal, sulphur  and  salt  peter,  afterward  glazed  with  lead  sulphide,  required 
but  a  few  men  in  the  grinding  rooms.  Some  of  these  complained  that  the 
nitrate  caused  headaches  and  dizzy  feelings  at  times.  The  work  was  dusty, 
somewhat  monotonous,  and  was  accompanied  with  considerable  noise.  The 
grinding  of  cakes  of  finished  powder  was  done  in  isolated  places,  the  workmen 
being  provided  with  small  sheds,  where  they  stayed  while  the  grinding  was 
going  on,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  explosion.  The  pulverizing  of  charcoal 
was  exceedingly  dusty  work  and  complaints  of  bronchitis  were  made.  Some  of 
the  workers,  however,  had  been  employed  a  long  time  at  this  process.  In  one 
plant  the  grinders  for  nitrates  were  all  enclosed  so  that  the  workers  were  abso- 
lutely protected. 

POWDER  MILLS.  —  The  mills  are  similar  to  the  glaze  grinding  mills  in 
potteries.  A  charge  is  put  into  the  mill  consisting  of  the  proper  proportions  of 
sulphur,  sodium  nitrate  and  charcoal  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  2  men  in  charge 
of  each  house  to  see  that  the  charge  does  not  work  out  from  under  the  grind- 
ing wheels,  otherwise  the  wheel  may  come  in  contact  with  the  base  and  form 
a  spark.  Water  is  thrown  on  continually  to  keep  the  charge  cool.  Here  is 
where  explosions  usually  occur.  In  some  places  workers  divided  the  day  into 
two  12-hour  shifts.  The  workers  were  provided  with  baths  which  they  were 
compelled  to  use  daily  and  also  to  change  clothes  daily.  Health-hazards  ap- 
peared quite  negligible,  but  the  work  was  so  dirty  that  in  the  neighborhood  the 
workers  were  called  "black  men." 

PRESSROOMS.  —  Separate  small  buildings  were  used  where  the  pul- 
verized charge  was  pressed  into  flat  cakes  by  hand  presses  or  by  large  machine 
presses.  The  latter  caused  considerable  dus't  from  shoveling  powder  into  the 
presses.  The  cakes  were  again  powdered  up,  after  which  they  went  to  a 
graining  machine,  or  corning  mill. 

CORNING  MILLS.  —  These  mills  reduce  the  powder  to  the  proper  sized 
grains,  the  work  being  somewhat  dusty.  Workers  were  equipped  with  small 
sheds  outside  where  they  spent  most  of  their  time,  the  machinery  being  con- 
trolled by  electricity. 

GLAZING  POWDER.  —  The  glazing  of  the  grains  of  powder  was  done 
by  putting  a  dipper  full  of  lead  sulphide,  and  sometimes  graphite,  into  a  large 
tumbling  machine,  which  brought  the  grains  in  contact  with  the  glaze.  The 
risk  from  poisoning  seemed  negligible.  Non-English-speaking  workers  were 
largely  employed,  some  of  whom  had  bad  teeth,  but  were  without  other 
symptoms  suggestive  of  lead  poisoning. 

SEPARATING,  WEIGHING  AND  PACKING.  — The  grains  of  blast- 
ing powder  were  separated  according  to  sizes,  an  average  size  being  about  that 
of  a  peanut  kernel,  and  about  the  same  shape.  These  were  weighed  and  packed 
into  cans.     There  appeared  to  be  no  peculiar  health-hazards. 


346 

CARTRIDGES.  — FELT  AND  WAD  MAKING.  —  Cow-hair  was  run 
through  carding  machine,  the  large  sheets  of  loose  hair  mat  being  next  run 
through  heated  rollers  and  then  placed  in  hydraulic  presses  Which  produced 
the  compact  pads  of  felt,  such  as  one  is  accustomed  to  seeing.  Other  machines 
stamped  out  wads  of  the  proper  size  for  cartridges.  The  work  had  a  peculiar 
foul  odor  of  hot  and  steamy  character,  due  to  the  dirty  cow-hair.  Many  of  the 
men  were  stripped  to  the  waist,  and  some  of  them  in  bare  feet. 

METALLIC  CARTRIDGE  MAKING.  — The  copper  and  brass  shells  are 
received  as  small  tubes,  blind  at  one  end,  and  are  annealed,  washed  in  tumblers 
of  dilute  soda  solution,  drawn,  and  annealed  again,  —  the  process  being  repeated 
until  they  are  the  proper  size  and  shape.  The  work  w^as  hot,  wet,  and  humid, 
and  employed  a  large  number  of  workers  (not  included  in  the  figures  above 
given). 

CARTRIDGES.  —  LEAD  ROOM.  — Lead  is  'heated  in  pots,  run  into 
■hydraulic  presses  and  forced  out  through  holes  into  rods  or  wire,  which  are 
wound  on  spools  and  later  cut  into  proper  lengths  and  shaped  for  the  slug  or 
bullet  to  he  produced.  The  work  was  practically  all  mechanical,  and,  even  in 
packing  the  bullets  subsequently,  the  girls  did  not  touch  the  lead.  Also,  they 
were  all  instructed  to  wash  carefully  before  eating  and  had  plenty  of  good 
wash  places  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water.  The  men  in  the  lead-pot  quar- 
ters and  wire  room  appeared  in  little  danger  of  lead  poisoning. 

PAPER  SHELL  LOADING.  — The  assembled  shells  were  placed  in  a 
hopper  where  they  passed  into  a  machine  which  injected  the  powder,  inserted 
the  priming  caps,  shot,  and  wads,  and  crimped  the  shell  all  in  one  operation. 
The  shells  were  packed  on  a  floor  below  by  girl's,  seated  in  well  lighted  roomi^ 
upon  chairs  with  back  rests,  and  room  ventilation  promoted  by  overhead 
belt  fans. 

PAPER  SHELL  MAKING.  —  Paper  was  rolled  into  tubes  by  machinery. 
It  was  waterproofed  in  hot  paraffin  in  a  separate  room,  which  was  hot  and 
steamy.  The  assembling  with  brass  caps  was  all  done  by  machinery  operated 
mostly  by  girls.     Their  working  conditions  were   excellent  throughout. 

METALLIC  LOADING  AND  PACKING.  — The  inserting  of  bullets 
into  shells  after  the  powder  had  been  inserted,  either  by  hand  or  by  machine, 
was  a  mechanical  process,  girls  operating  the  machines  under  excellent  working 
conditions.  The  packing  of  cartridges  into  boxes  was  also  entirely  mechanical. 
■  FULMINATE  PRIMING  CAPS.  — Here  fulminate  of  mercury  was  used, 
but  only  one  man  was  concerned  in  the  process,  w'ho  was  thoroughly  skilled 
and  realized  the  danger,  both  as  to  explosion  and  as  to  poisoning.  The'  other 
workers  were  at  helping  processes. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CAPS  AND  ELECTRIC  FUSES.  — All  workers 
were  in  excellent  working  quarters,  each  department  being  in  a  separate  brick 
building  in  the  midst  of  beautiful  lawns.  The  processes  of  concern  were  (1) 
'the  spinning  of  white  cotton  upon  copper  wire  to  be  used  for  insulation, — there 
was  some  noise;  (2)  bridging  room,  where  the  soldering  of  platinum  wire 
across  points  and  running  sulphur  into  molds  around  the  points  was  done  by 
girls, — hazards  appeared  to  be  negligible;  (3)  tarring  of  covered  wire, — hot 
and  humid  work. 

NITROGLYCERINE  MANUFACTURE. —  This  appears  to  be  done  very 
limitedly.  One  concern,  which  also  operated  in  2  or  3  places  outside  of  the 
state,  had  practically  all  the  work  done  by  1  or  2  rnen  who  were  skilled.     These 


347 

worked  only  occasionally.  Helpers,  it  was  said,  occasionally  complained  of 
headache  and  a  feeling  of  distension  in  the  stomach,  and  a  flushing  of  the  face. 
Some,  also,  could  not  stand  the  odor.  Needless  to  say,  the  plant  was  well 
isolated,  being  '2^  miles  from  the  neighboring  town. 

FERTILIZERS  AND  GLUE. 

While  all  processes  of  this  industry  may  be  divided  into  the  manufac- 
ture of  chemicals,  the  mixing  of  chemicals,  refining  of  oil  and  grease,  etc.,  it 
is  well  to  consider  the  general  characteristics  of  the  business  in  total.  Ten 
plants  were  investigated  in  4  city  vicinities,  where  568  wage-earners  were  en- 
gaged at  the  time  of  inspection,  all  males  with  the  exception  of  10  girls  who 
were  working  in  a  glue-evaporating  department.  Five  of  the  plants  made 
fertilizers  from  the  carcasses,  hoofs,  horns,  hair  (wool),  bones  and  blood  of 
animals  (the  hides  usually  being  removed  and  sent  to  tanneries),  while  nearly 
•all  utilized  phosphatic  minerals  (superphosphates),  which  they  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid  to  convert  them  into  acid  phosphates.  Mixed  manures  and 
special  manures  were  all  produced,  in  which  various  nitrogenous  substances 
were  used.  One  firm  was  in  the  "degreasing  tankage"  business  for  fertilizers, 
solely,  using  gasoline  for  extractive  purpose.  Glue  and  gelatin  were  by-products 
in  some  of  the  rendering  works. 

Various  mechanical  processes  were  in  use  in  all  except  2  places  where 
rather  crude  devices  appeared  to  be  present.  There  were  no  unions.  The  general 
type  of  employes  was  a  very  inferior  class  of  workers,  indeed  described  by 
one  employer  as  "all  bums."  A  very  large  percentage  of  non-English-speak- 
ing immigrants  were  also  employed.  Also  numbers  of  negroes.  It  seemed  to 
be  the  rule  that  very  few  persons  remained  in  the  different  processes  or  even 
at  the  establishment  longer  than  a  few  weeks  or  a  few  months.  The  general 
interest  in  employes'  health  and  welfare  appeared  fair  to  good  in  6  establish- 
ments, but  quite  indifferent  in  the  remaining  4.  In  5  establishments  hoods  or 
exhausts  were  present  over  some  of  the  mixers  to  limit  the  exposure  to  dust 
and  fumes,  and  in  one  (a  large  plant)  storage  tanks  were  well  enclosed.  With 
these  exceptions  there  were  few  devices  which  could  be  called  health  appliances 
in  any  of  the  plants.  Two  places  were  also  well  equipped  with  good  toilets, 
shower  baths,  lockers,  change  rooms,  hot  and  cold  water  and  soap.  Sanitary 
conveniences  were  fearfully  bad  in  the  most  of  the  remaining  plants.  In  no 
establishments  were  there  any  mutual  benefit  associations  or  organized  effort 
at  instructing  the  workers  in  hygiene  or  even  in  the  proper  use  of  the  shower 
baths,  respirators,  etc.  The  general  construction  of  the  plants  from  a  health 
point  of  view  appeared  good  for  practically  all  departments  in  3  places,  fairly 
so  in  2  others,  and  not  so  in  the  remaining  5.  Age-group  estimations  showed 
68  over  40  years,  with  500  under  that  age,  about  10%  of  whom  were  under 
20  years.  There  was  not  much  intermingling  of  processes.  The  summer  and 
winter  were  said  to  be  the  dull  seasons.  During  busy  seasons  the  number  of 
employes  might  be  increased  1,000%. 

Dust  was  a  chief  hazard  of  the  industry.  It  was  usually  of  corrosive 
character  and  very  harmful.  It  was  produced  in  the  grinding  machines  of 
both  natural  and  artificial  manures,  manipulating  mixers,  and,  especially,  sack- 
ing processes.  It  was  often  excessive  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  and  com- 
posed of  basic  slag,  phosphate  rock  (superphosphates),  acid  phosphates,  gypsum. 


348 

quick  lime,  potash,  ammonium  sulphate  and  phosphate,  cyanamide,  bone  dust, 
dried  organic  tankage,  etc.  In  a  limited  number  hoods  and  exhausts  took  care 
of  some  of  the  dust,  and  in  1  plant  trucks  to  be  filled  were  entirely  enclosed 
during  the  process  of  filling,  and  pulled  out  from  the  enclosure  after  the  dust 
had  subsided.  This  also  avoided  the  need  of  digging  out  the  material  with 
spades,  as  was  the  usual  custom.  Dirt  and  disorder  characterized  all  except 
1  of  the  establishments.  It  is  is  to  be  recognized,  of  course,  that  cleanliness 
is  a  difficult  matter  in  this  business.  However,  very  little  attempt  appeared  to 
be  made  to  clean  up  quarters  in  most  of  the  places.  In  4  places  (cooking 
carcasses,  tankage,  glue  extracting  and  evaporation)  dampness  was  a  feature, 
where  it  was  due  to  water  or  escape  of  steam.  The  construction  of  some  of 
the  buildings  also  permitted  of  weather  exposure.  Certain  quarters  where 
workmen  were  required  to  be  were  dark  in  6  places,  and  especially  so  in  3  of 
them.  The  general  ventilation  of  work  quarters  could'  not  be  said  to  be  good 
throughout  for  any  place,  since  the  air  was  more  or  less  odoriferous  or 
contaminated  with  dust,  fumes  and  steam  (as  given  under  dust  and  poisons). 
There  was  not  much  hazard  from  heat.  Half  of  the  establishments  were  with- 
out means  of  heating  for  the  winter  (the  dull  season).  Workers,  however, 
were  not  engaged  in  sedentary  processes  or  in  places  where  they  could  not 
protect  themselves  by  proper  clothing.  The  work  could  not  be  said  to  be 
fatiguing,  although  some  features  of  it  were  laborious,  as  in  the  collecting  pits 
and  sacking  departments.  The.  workday  was  9  hours  in  1  place,  10  hours  in 
9  places  (except  that  "degreasing"  crews  worked  in  two  12-hour  shifts  in  1 
place).  The  noon  recess  was  54  hour  in  2  places,  and  ^  hour  in  the  remain- 
ing. An  A.  M.  lunch  was  occasionally  observed  which  was  dangerous  because 
no  time  was  taken  to  wash  up.  The  liability  to  the  contraction  of  com- 
municable diseases  was  great  in  all  of  the  rendering  plants,  particularly  the 
flaying  or  skinning  rooms,  due  to  the  nature  of  the  materials  worked  upon 
and  the  presence  of  swarms  of  flies.  It  would;  however,  take  a  more  intensive 
study  to  determine  to  what  extent  the  diseases  of  animals  and  the  presence  of 
infectious  germs  occurred  among  the  workers.  Malignant  pustule  (anthrax), 
glanders,  gas-bacillus  infection,  erysipelas,  virulent  suppurations,  "butcher's 
wart,"  typhoid  fever  and  the  spread  of  foot-and-mouth  disease  by  flies  were 
the  pestilences  of  hazard  in  the  rendering  works.  These  workers  were  prob- 
ably more  exposed  to  such  disease  hazards  than  in  the  Tanning  industry  or 
any  other  industry  investigated.  In  8  of  the  plants,  however,  there  was  every 
opportunity  for  contracting  the  commoner  (human)  communicable  diseases, 
due  to  the  promiscuous  spitting  into  dust  heaps  and  dirt  accumulations,  the 
absence  of  cuspidors,  the  use  of  common  drinking  vessels,  the  absence  or 
great  inadequacy  of  washing  facilities  and  the  primitive  types  of  closets  pro- 
vided. In  many  instances  these  consisted  simply  of  privies  which  were  moved 
from  place  to  place  over  the  grounds,  entirely  unscreened^  and'  a  focus  for 
swarms  of  flies.  The  liability  to  industrial  poisoning  was  present  for  some 
of  the  workers  in  all  plants,  and  particularly  so  in  7  establishments.  Lack  of 
protection  from  the  poisons  and  the  ignorant  class  of  workers  employed  were 
the  chief  reasons.  (In  this  respect  each  of  the  processes  is  considered  below.) 
Penetrating  odors  and  stench  were  the  rule.  Much  of  this  came  from  storage 
bins  and  quarters  as  well  as  from  the  operations.  The  industrial  induce- 
ment to  alcoholism  was  great  for  most  of  the  workers  in  all  plants.  The  gen- 
eral nature  of  the  business  was  a  factor,  while  the  breathing  of  dust,  irritant 


349 

poisons,  and  in  some  places  the  lack  of  reasonable  sanitary  conveniences  and 
adequate  drinking  water  facilities  added  to  the  inducement. 

Excepting  some  of  the  by-product  processes,  a  considerable  percentage  of 
dissipated  or  unhealthy  looking  workers  were  reported  by  investigators.  Their 
short  tenure  of  employment,  however,  showed  that  the  industry  had  little  to 
do  with  these  matters  as  a  rule  for  a  large  majority  of  the  workers.  How- 
ever, some  old  time  workers  were  decidedly  under  par  physically.  The  chief 
complaints  of  workers  were  the  breathing  of  dust  and  acid  fumes  which  caused 
coughs,  catarrh,  sore  throat,  undue  frequency  of  colds,  shortness  of  breath, 
pains  in  the  chest,  and  occasionally  fever  with  definite  chills  ("bone  dust 
fever").  The  possibility  of  this  being  pneumonia  could  not  be  ascertained.  In- 
digestion, nausea  and  vomiting,  probably  due  to  a  gastric  catarrh,  accentuated 
by  the  breathing  of  foul  odors  and  the  swallowing  of  disgusting  dust  particles, 
was  also  a  complaint.  In  one  outlying  place  a  shack  was  provided  which  con- 
tained about  fifty  berths,  arranged  in  four  tiers,  and  the  whole  in  a  very 
unsanitary  condition.     There  was  also  no  sewer  connections. 

COOKING  CARCASSES,  GARBAGE,  ETC.  —  Rank  odor,  steam,  wet 
floors. 

STORAGE.- — Rank  odor  from  organic  materials,  danger  of  carbon  dioxide 
asphyxia,  especially  bone  storage. 

DECREASING. — Gasoline  exposure,  fire  danger. 

GRINDING  BONES.— Exceedingly  dusty. 

MANIPULATING  MIXER  AND  GRINDING.— Exceedingly  dusty,  espe- 
cially for  men  at  top  of  machines.  Dust  composed  of  any  or  all  of  the  in- 
gredients mentioned  above  under  "dust."  Sacks  were  usually  filled  directly 
from  this  mixer.  One  worker  claimed  that  there  was  a  peculiar  effect  produced 
by  the  drinking  of  beer  while  breathing  cyanamide  dust,  which  caused  headache, 
giddiness  and  nausea.  Respirators  should  be  supplied  for  these  processes  and 
their  wearing  insisted  upon.  Many  of  the  workers  wore  rags  over  their  noses 
and  mouths.  There  is  great  danger  of  ulcers  forming  upon  the  mucous  mem- 
branes, and-  of  pneumonia,  especially  from  basic  slag  dust. 

TANKAGE  GRINDING.  — The  grinding  up  oi  dried  organic  tankage 
produced  foul  odor  and  a  great  amount  of  dust.  In  some  places  one  could 
with  difficulty  see  across  the  room,  while  the  dust  was  almost  suffocating. 

ACIDULATING  MIXER.  — Dust,  usually  of  mineral  character  (see 
under  "dust"  above),  and  oftentimes  excessive  in  the  breathing  atmosphere.  In 
addition  there  were  evolved  fumes  of  sulphur  dioxide,  hydroflouric  acid, 
hydrochloric  acid,  carbonic  acid,  silicon  fiouride,  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  in 
some  processes  nitrous  acid.  The  amount  of  these  fumes  was  usually  limited, 
but  the  means  of  confining  them  varied  greatly.  In  2  or  3  places  there  was  a 
suction  arrangement  which  carried  off  the  fumes  to  a  condensor,  equipped 
with  a  water  spray.  In  other  places  it  was  said  that  the  fumes  became  so  bad, 
especially  in  warm  weather,  that  everybody  had  to  leave. 

SACKING.  —  This  was  often  done  by  shoveling  and  wheelbarrow  work, 
some  of  the  men  wearing  respirators.  It  was  probably  the  dustiest  of  all 
operations.  Some  plants  were  equipped  with  sacking  machines,  automatic 
scales,  etc. 

GLUE  EXTRACTION  AND  EVAPORATION.  —  Steam,  humidity  and 
nauseating  odors. 

LEAD  LINED  TANKS.  — See  Soldering  and  Lead  Burning. 


350 

Comments.  —  Outside  of  the  obvious  necessity  for  general  improvements 
in  sanitary  conditions  in  most  of  the  plants,  we  cite  a  few  of  the  precautions 
mentioned  by  Doehring,  in  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  No.  44,  pp.  110-113.  Many 
excellent  suggestions  are  also  contained  in  this  bulletin  on  labor  saving  devices, 
accident,  fire  and  explosion  prevention  for  this  industry.  Readers  are  also 
referred  to  "Industrial  Poisons,"  by  J.  Rambousek,  pp.  261-265  (see  book  cita- 
tions in  Part  II.)  for  the  suggestions  from  the  German  Imperial  regulations. 
1.  The  crude  bones  must,  as  far  as  possible,  be  stored  in  dry  and  well- 
ventilated  rooms. 

2.  In  transporting,  sorting,  and  disintegrating  the  bones,  men  with  open 
wounds  on  the  hands  must  not  be  allowed  to  work.  The  sorting  must  be  done 
only  in  an  airy  and  well-lighted  room. 

3.  In  crushing  works,  rolling-ball  grinding  mills,  and  chain-pump  works, 
the  opening  of  the  feeders  must  be  inclosed  or  made  sa-fe  in  some  other  way. 
The  path  of  the  transporting  vessels  and  feeding  screws  must  be  efficiently 
secured. 

4.  If  sulphurous  acids  are  used  in  the  manufacture,  ventilating  arrange- 
ments must  be  introduced  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  fumes. 

5.  The  injurious  dust  generated  by  the  comminution  and  grinding  of  the 
bones  must  be  removed  as  far  as  possible  by  suction  at  its  place  of  produc- 
tion. In  case  it  is  impossible  to  accomplish  this,  the  men  must  be  supplied 
with  respirators,  sponges,  mouth  cloths  or  other  efficient  protectors,  and  their 
use  must  be  required. 

6.  The  tanks  for  treating  the  bones  with  sulphuric  acid  must  be  sup- 
plied with  contrivances  to  prevent  the  escape  of  injurious  and  annoying  gases 
and  fumes.  Crude  materials  which  generate  dangerous  qiiantities  of  iluoric, 
hydrochloric,  or  nitric  acid  fumes  must  not  be  treated  in  open  pits.  Treat- 
ment of  bones  with  nondenitrated  acid  wastes  in  open  pits  must  be   forbidden. 

7.  The  introduction  or  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  must  be  so  accom- 
plished as  to  prevent  the  spilling  and  scattering  of  the  acid  as  far  as  possible. 
In  emptying  the  acid  carboys,   lifters   for  that  purpose  must  be  used. 

8.  Workmen  whose  eyes  are  threatened  by  the  spattering  of  acids  must 
be  supplied  with  eye  protectors,  and  be  compelled  to  wear  them. 

9.  Ground  -Thomas  slag,  or  other  rocks,  rnust  be  stored  only  in  bags  or 
barrels,  or  if  in  bulk,  only  in  closed  rooms,  which  are  supplied  with  mechanical 
dust  suction.  -    , 

10.  In  emptying  the  acid-treatment  chamber,  a  strong  and  efficient  system 
of  ventilation  must  be  employed. 

PAINT  AND  VARNISH. 

Paint  manufacturing  is,  with  the  exception  of  2  or  3  establishments  in  the 
state  of  Ohio,  strictly  a  chemical  mixing  process.  That  is,  the  manufacturers 
purchase  the  original  ingredients  (colors,  powders,  resins,  gums,  solvents,  etc.) 
and  simply  grind  and  mix  them  up  with  oil  and  other  vehicles.  In  the  case 
of  varnishes,  cooking  processes  are  necessary.  With  the  exception  of  one 
railroad  company  which  built  its  own  cars,  all  "of  the  places  investigated  were 
engaged  in  the  mixing  O'f  ingredients  to  make  paint  and  varnish  (including 
enamels,  japans,  lacquers,   putties,   sealing  wax,   etc.).  ^ 

Our  investigations  covered  40  establishments  in  7  cities,  employing  a  total 
of  757  men  who  were  engaged  in  these  processes.     (The  manufacture  of  Lead 


351 

Oxides,  Filling  Containers,  Labeling,   Printing,  Cooperage,  etc.,'  are  considered 
elsewhere). 

Machine  methods  of  modern  type  were  employed  in  18  of  these  establish- 
ments, and  to  a  large  extent  in  20  more,  while  in  the  remaining  2  places  (both 
small)  no  mechanical  appliances  were  at  hand.  There  were  no  unions  among 
the  "wage-earners.  The  general  attitude  of  employers  toward  the  welfare  of 
employes  seemed  good  in  19  places,  fair  in  19  more,  but  quite  indififerent  in  the 
remaining  2  (both  of  which  were  small  places).  Endeavors  were  apparently 
made  to  retain  the  sarne  employes  in  32  of  the  places,  while  there  was  some 
indifference  concerning  this  in  the  remaining  8,  some  of  which  were  large 
establishments.  Health  appliances,  consisting  of  suction  pipes  over  mixing  and 
grinding  processes,  hoods  over  varnish  kettles  and  fans  or  air-blasts  to  blow 
dust  away  from  workers  who  scooped  or  shovelled  lead  oxides  from  barrels 
were  present  in  8  plants,  but  in  only  2  were  they  numerous  enough,  and 
efficient.  They  were  absent  in  the  remaining  32  plants.  In  a  number  of  these, 
respirators  were  furnished,  but  not  much  used.  It  is  true  that  in  a  small 
number  of  establishments,  with  ordinary  care  on  the  part  of  the  workers,  there 
was  no  necessity  for  special  forms  of  health  appliances.  In  some  8  plants  a 
"welfare  department"  vs^as  present  which  gave  definite  instructions  concern- 
ing the  danger  of  poisoning  from  the  ingredients  used,  and  such  instructions 
appeared  to  be  proper  and  sufficient  in  5  of  these  (where  direct  medical 
supervision  also  obtained).  Workers  would  not  always  assume  the  obligation 
of  follovv^ing  instructions.  In  1  establishment  a  sick  benefit  organization  ex- 
isted. The  work  was  very  largely  unskilled  as  far  as  the  wage-earners  them- 
selves were  concerned.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  good 
in  19  places,  fair  in  10  more,  and  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  11.  In  5 
places  (all  small)  other  processes  were  carried  on  in  the  vicinity  of  paint  and 
varnish  mixing,  such  as  labeling,  filling  containers,  soldering  and  packing. 
The  age-group  estimations  summed  up  as  follows : 

No.  of 
Age-groups.  Wage-earners. 

Over  50  years   23 

45  to  50  years  fi'^ 

40  to  45  years   56 

Under  40  years  615 

Total     757 

Of  the  last  group,  about  20  per  cent  were  under  20  years  of  age. 

As  the  work  was  conducted,  dust  in  the  breathing  atmosphere  appeared  to 
be  negligible  in  7  places  (where  a  total  of  93  workers  were  employed),  but  to 
be  a  hazard  in  the  remaining  31.  In  23  of  these  it  was  decidedly  bad  (here  a 
total  of  460  wage-earners  were  employed).  The  dusts  were  almost  invariably 
of  harmful  character  because  of  their  poisonous  nature,  or  of  their  mineral 
nature,  principally  the  first.  In  many  places  very  little  attempt  was  made  to 
control  the  dust  in  various  shoveling,  scooping,  conveying,  weighing,  stirring  and 
mixing  processes,  while  workers  appeared  to  pay  very  little  more  attention  to 
protecting  themselves  than  if  they  were  working  in  a  flour  mill  and  were  breath- 
ing flour  dust.  However,  in  all  of  the  23  places  graded  as  bad,  the  fault  lay 
chiefly  in  the  working  conditions,  such  as  the  absence  of  confining  apparatus  to 
keep  the   dust  out   of  the  breathing  atmosphere,   the  lack   of   proper   washing 


352 

facilities,  proper  clothing,  gloves,  or  respirators.  It  is  also  absolutely  necessary 
that  such  quarters  be  immaculately  clean,  because  of  the  "kicking  up"  of  dust 
from  the  floors,  or  the  stirring  of  it  up  from  benches,  platforms,  bins,  etc.  In 
this  respect  7  places  seemed  to  be  kept  sufficiently  clean  and  orderly,  10  others 
fairly  so,  but  the  remaining  23  were  bad.  Thick  caking  of  paints  and  varnishes 
on  the  floors  was  a  common  observation.  This  was  due  mostly  to  negligence  in 
cleaning,  or  the  failure  to  put  down  papers  (as  was  done  in  some  places)  to 
protect  the  floor.  In  many  places  the  floors  were  caked  to  the  extent  of  i-  to  1 
inch  or  more  with  paint  accumulations.  Floors  were  often  of  a  very  rough 
type  and  full  of  cra.cks  and  holes  so  that  cleaning  was  a  difficult  problem. 
In  many  places,  also,  sirnply  dry  sweeping  with  a  broom  or  brush,  a  part  of 
which  was  done  while  the  quarters  were  occupied  by  workers,  was  the  method 
of  cleaning  resorted  to.  In  some  places  very  little  regular  cleaning  appeared 
to  be  done  at  all.  In  1  place  the  railings  to  stairs  were  covered  with  paint 
accumulations.  In  6  establishments  there  was  a  considerable  amount  of 
dampness,  due  to  the  use  of  water  in  certain  processes,  the  escape  of  steam 
or  the  location  of  the  workrooms  in  basement  or  other  low  quarters.  Very 
often,  also,  the  air  was  exceedingly  dry  and  "biting"  from  the  nature  of  the 
dusts  or  fumes  which  contaminated  the  atmosphere.  Work-quarters  Avere  well 
lighted  in  32  instances,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining  8  (for  at  least  some  of 
the  processes)  ;  this  was  particularly  so  in  4  places,  2  of  which  were  large 
plants.  The  general  room  ventilation  was  considered  good  in  8  places,  fair 
in  14  more,  but  bad  in  the  remaining  18.  The  cause  of  vitiation  of  the  at- 
mosphere (in  addition  to  dust)  was  contamination  with  fumes,  vapors, 
nauseating  odors  and  irritants,  and  in  some  instances  gas  fumes  from  poorly 
ventilated  heating  apparatus.  In  addition,  in  some  workrooms  the  air  was 
decidedly  stagnant  because  of  close  confinement  of  quarters,  and  the  absence  of 
any  artificial  arrangements  for  keeping  it  in  motion.  In  4  places  a  number  of 
workers  were  more  or  less  continuously  exposed  to  heat,  especially  in  the 
making  of  varnish,  while  in  some  small  places  there  were  inefficient  heating 
arrangements  for  winter  work.  There  was  not  very  much  in  the  process  of 
a  fatiguing  character.  Occasionally  some  workers  were  employed  at  very 
monotonous  applications,  and  hurrying  piece-work  was  occasionally  present. 
However,  there  seemed  to  be  enough  diversity  to  insure  proper  recreation,  as 
well  as  exercise.  The  workday  was  9  hours  in  3  places  and  varied  between 
91"  to  lOJ  hours  in  the  remaining  37  places.  The  noon  recess  was  1  hour  in  6 
places,  and  varied  between  40  minutes  and  20  minutes  in  the  remaining  34 
places.  In  many  of  the  places  the  workday  was  not  regular.  The  liability  to 
contracting  communicable  diseases  appeared  negligible  in  7  places,  fairly  so 
in  13  more,  but  a  considerable  hazard  in  the  remaining  20  places,  the  chief 
features  being  the  use  of  common  towels,  unsterilized  rags,  poorly  kept 
closets  (several  without  sewer  connections),  common  drinking  cups,  promis- 
cuous spitting  upon  dusty  floors  or  into  refuse  piles,  absence  of  cuspidors, 
occasionally  the  crowding  together  of  workers,  and  frequent  trivial  injuries 
(which  might  have  been  lessened  by  the  use  of  gloves,  and  sometimes  goggles 
and  other  protective  devices).  In  some  5  places  attention  was  givn  to  medical 
supervision,  but  not  to  the  extent  of  physical  examinations  in  more  than  one 
instance.  The  liability  to  poisoning  appeared  negligible  in  8  plants,  fairly  so  in 
7  more,  but  a  bad  risk  in  the  remaining  25.  The  whole  range  of  predisposing 
factors  (see  under  "poisons"  in  Part  III)  were  found  present  in  various 
places.     For  instance,  washing  facilities    (water,  soap,  hand  brushes,  nail  fales, 


353 

wash  basins  and  towels)  were  entirely  absent  or  practically  so  in  10  plants.  In 
1  plant  workers  had  to  go  down  and  up  three  flights  of  stairs  to  get  to  wash 
quarters.  Lead  appeared  to  be  the  chief  poison,  with  turpentine,  benzine 
(naphtha),  amyl  compounds,  wood  alcohol,  and  various  other  solvents  used 
in  the  preparation  of  enamels,  japans,  lacquers,  and  varnishes,  —  any  and 
sometimes  all  of  these  —  present  in  various  establishments.  In  some  plants 
all  naphtha  mixing  was  done  in  an  outside  shed  for  fear  of  fire.  Outside  of 
the  comments  made  in  Part  III,  the  foolhardy  attitude  which  many  workers 
took  toward  the  risk  of  poisoning  must  be  cited.  This  was  more  so  among 
younger  men,  while  there  was  usually  present  an  "anti-example"  in  some  one 
or  two  older  men  in  the  plant,  who  had  been  exposed  to  the  same  conditions 
for  years,  and  shown  no  apparent  effects  of  the  same.  This  existence  in  the 
"realm  of  toleration"  and  living  up  to  the  limit  of  one's  reserve  powers,  has 
been  sufficiently  discussed  also  in  Parts  II.  and  III.  The  industrial  inducement 
to  alcoholism  was  present  to  a  vast  majority  of  the  workers,  with  the  poison 
factor  (lead  especially)  as  the  chief  incitant.  What  is  known  as  "Pieraccini's 
vicious  circle"  is  the  fact  that  lead  in  the  human  system  incites  the  desire  for 
alcoholic  beverages,  while  alcohol,  in  combination  with  lead,  quickly  damages 
the  kidneys  and  the  blood  vessels. 

The  general  appearance  of  workers  in  this  industry  seemed  good  in  18 
places,  but  1  or  more  sickly  looking  workers  were  observed  in  the  remaining 
22.  There  were  many  complaints  made  about  the  breathing  of  dusts  and 
fumes,  and  various  forms  of  sicknesses,  skin  troubles,  eye  troubles,  bladder 
troubles,  etc.  Nausea,  loss  of  appetite,  spells  of  dizziness,  poor  sleep,  trembling, 
palpitation,  frequent  urination,  headache,  constipation,  and  eczema  or  dermatitis 
were  the  commonest  of  the  personal  complaints.  During  the  course  of  in- 
vestigations, our  representative  came  across  31  instances  of  occupational 
diseases,  as  follows :  lead  poisoning,  positive,  22,  tentative,  4 ;  naphtha 
(benzine)  poisoning,  5  positive.  In  addition,  there  were  numerous  plainly 
evident  instances  of  the  effects  of  turpentine,  dusts,  fumes  and  vapors  upon 
the  individuals  who  worked  exposed  to  them. 

Comments.  —  In  summarizing,  there  were  5  plants  which  appeared  to  be 
model  and  healthy  places  in  which  to  work  in  all  respects.  A  considerable 
number  of  others,  while  not  model  plants,  were  safe  enough  to  work  in, 
provided  employes  were  properly'  instructed  and  supervised.  A  large  majority 
of  the  plants  needed  many  improvements  in  working  conditions,  sanitary 
necessities,  mechanical  devices,  and  sometimes  changing  of  methods  to  render 
them  at  all  free  from  health-hazards.  Particularly  would  it  appear  that 
placards,  informing  employes  upon  the  prevention  of  poisoning,  especially 
lead,  should  be  posted  up  in  all  such  establishments.  The  observation^  of  the 
rules  laid  down  for  lead  would  also  lessen  poisoning  from  a  considerable 
number  of  other  noxious  materials.  Workers  should  be  allowed  time  to  wash 
before  eating,  and,  great  stress  should  be  put  upon  this  (one  plant  allowed 
all  workers  15  minutes  in  which  to  wash.)  They  should  not  eat  in  dusty 
or  vapor-laden  atmosphere.  In  one  place  a  man  was  seen  eating  with  his 
hands  and  clothing  covered  with  red  lead.  Oftentimes  workers  ate  part  of 
their  breakfasts  after  coming  to  work.  (Provided,  this  were  done  in  safe  sur- 
roundings and  with  clean  hands  and  lips,  it  is  to  be  commended,  since  a  full 
stomach  lessens  the  possibility  of  ingested  poisons'  doing  damage.  Milk  is 
recommended).  One  plant  rotated  all  workers  in  the  dry  lead  departments 
every  30  dkys  and  more  frequently  if  any  complaints  arose.  Tobacco  and 
23    o.  D. 


354 

gum  chewing  has  been  abolished  in  foreign  plants  which  manufacture  paints. 
There  is  probably  no  other  industry  in  which  a  medical  supervision  of  em- 
ployes is  more  needed  than  the  one  under  discussion.  Because  workers  are 
not  stricken  down,  and  sudden  deaths  from  poisoning  do  not  occur,  the  ex- 
istence of  slow  poisoning  and  the  changes  in  health  status  which  years  bring 
about  seem  to  be  entirely  overlooked.  A  five-minutes  examination  of  each 
employe  by  a  competent  physician  once  a  month  would  eliminate  an  immense 
amount  of  this  slow  poisoning,  and  greatly  benefit  the  health  of  workers  in 
this  industry.  The  physician  should  be  informed  of  every  case  of  illness 
among  workers,  whether  the  same  necessitated  absence  from  work  or  not  —  in 
fact,  should  ask  every  worker  as  to  his  health  during  the  preceding  month. 
The  physician  would  be  an  excellent  means,  also,  of  spreading  advice  and  em- 
phasizing the  dangers  of  negligence.  (See  Comments  under  Painting  and 
Varnishing.)  (See  also  "Protective  Measures  for  Varnish  and  Lacquer  Man- 
ufacture" by  C.  F.  W.  Doehring,  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  No.  44,  pp.  82-83.) 

PAINT  AND  VARNISH. FILLING  CONTAINERS. 

Many  subdivisions  of  processes,  accompanied  by  varying  hazards  to  health 
can  be  made  of  the  paint  and  varnish  mixing  industry.  Outside  of  the  sub- 
processes  considered  previously,  it  seems  best  to  make  but  one  more  classifica- 
tion of  workers  in  this  industry.  This  is  the  group  which  has  to  do  with  the 
filling  of  the  various  containers  for  paint  and  varnish,  such  as  cans,  kegs, 
barrels,  etc.  Naturally  only  larger  establishments  have  workers  who  do  this 
work  exclusively.  In  15  establishments  investigated,  there  were  203  wage- 
earners  so  employed,  of  whom  35  were  females  (engaged  in  4  plants).  The 
work  was  done  by  mechanical  methods  almost  altogether  in  3  plants,  and  to 
a  large  extent  in  most  of  the  remaining.  An  intelligent  type  of  wage-earners 
appeared  to  be  hired  in  8  places,  while  a  considerable  number  of  ignorant, 
and  often  non-English  speaking  persons  were  employed  in  the  remaining  5. 
The  retention  of  the  same  personnel  of  workers  was  aimed  at  in  all  except  2 
or  3  large  places.  In  2  places,  room  ventilating  arrangements  were  at  hand, 
as  well  as  hoods  and  other  arrangements  for  confining  dusts  and  noxious 
materials.  In  the  balance,  these  were  absent,  in  many  of  which  they  should  have 
been  present.  The  general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  graded  as  good  in 
5  places,  fair  in  6  others  and  hygienically  bad  in  the  remaining  4.  Other 
processes  (Paint  and  Varnish  Making)  were  present  in  a  number  of  places, 
but  the  tendency  was  to  put  the  filling  of  containers  in  separate  quarters.  The 
age-group  estimations   for  this  group  of  workers  summed  up   as   follows : 

No.  of 
Age-groups.  Wage-earners. 

Over  50  years 4 

45  to  60  years  16 

40  to  45  years 19 

Under  40  years  164 

Total 208 

Of  the  latter  age-group  about  20  per  cent  were  under  20'years  of  age. 

In  some  4  establishments  there  was  a  hazardous  amount  of  dust  in  connec- 
tion with  the  process,  which  was  particularly  bad  in  1  small  place.  Quarters  were 
kept  clean  and  onderly  in  6  places,  fairly  so  in  7  more,  but  not  so  in  the  remaining 


355 

2.  In  1  good  sized  place  workers'  hands,  clothes  and  the  floor  were  smeared 
with  paint  in  the  filling  of  cans.  Lighting  was  not  good  in  3  places,  particu- 
larly for  workers  in  certain  parts.  The  general  room  ventilation  was  good  in 
4  places,  and  better,  on  the  average,  than  in  the  other  process  rooms  in  the 
remaining  11  places.  There  was,  as  a  rule,  more  piece-work  in  connection 
with  filling  the  containers  than  in  the  mixing  of  ingredients,  but  fatigue  did 
not  appear  to  be  a  serious  hazard  any  place.  The  workday  was  the  same  as 
described  for  the  other  processes.  The  risk  of  poisoning  appeared  negligible 
in  2  places,  fairly  so  in  9  others,  but  considerable  in  the  remaining  4,  due, 
principally,  to  the  breathing  of  fumes  and  vapors,  which  escaped  while  paint 
and  varnish  solutions  were  being  conveyed,  injected  or  poured  into  containers, 
and  otherwise  handled.  There  was  also  considerable  risk  from  the  getting 
of  poisons  upon  the  hands  and  transferring  the  same  to  the  mouth  and  lips. 
This  was  greatly  enhanced  because  of  the  absence  of  proper  washing  facilities 
in  most  places,  and  the  lack  of  caution  and  supervision  of  the  workers.  Many 
of  them  were  found  to  be  under  the  impression  that  this  process  of  the  work 
was  quite  without  danger  of  poisoning  when  such  was  not  the  case.  Often- 
times, little  mistakes  in  personal  precautions  were  the  sole  reasons  at  hand  for 
poisoning. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  workers  rated  well  in  10  places,  while  1 
or  more  sickly  looking,  and  probably  chronically  poisoned,  persons  were  found 
employed  in  the  remaining  5  places.  Complaints  were  much  less  frequent  than 
noted  in  other  processes,  but  were  of  the  same  general  nature.  Our  investi- 
gators came  across  4  cases  of  lead  poisoning  in  2  plants,  among  workers  who 
were  filling  paint  containers,  while  a  number  of  hearsay  cases  of  illnesses 
which  were  probably  due  to  poisoning  by  various  paint  and  varnish  ingredients, 
were  brought  to  our  attention. 

Comments.  —  The  idea  that  these  processes  have  no  more  hazard  in  con- 
nection with  them  than  those  of  any  general  factory  process  of  inspecting, 
packing,  etc.,  must  be  corrected.  Particularly  should  employes  be  freed  from 
the  necessity  of  breathing  fumes  and  vapors  (a  fact  which  is  accomplished  in 
some  plants),  and  placards  concerning  personal  precautions  should  apply  to 
this  group  of  workers  the  same  as  to  those  in  the  other  processes.  Where  lead 
compounds  are  put  up,  medical  supervision  should  be  instituted.  (See  Com- 
ments under  Gluing,   Pasting  and  Labeling.) 

OILCLOTH    AND   LINOLEUM. 

The  manufacture  of  oilcloth  and  linoleum  is  a  limited  industry  in  the 
state.  It  was  investigated  in^  3  establishments  where  a  total  of  240  men  were 
engaged  in  the  various  processes.  Strictly  modern  methods  obtained  in  all 
places.  The  attitude  toward  the  help,  the  type  of  workers  and  their  retention 
at  the  workplace  appeared  good  in  all  places.  Certain  forms  of  health  ap- 
pliances such  as  ventilators  were  present  in  some  parts  where  needed  in  2 
establishments.  The 'general  construction  of  work  quarters  was  hygienically 
good  in  parts  of  1  plant,  fair  in  2  other  plants,  but  not  good  for  other  parts 
in  the  first  plant  mentioned.  Processes  were  usually  separated  from  each 
other.  A  fair  percentage  of  the  workers  were  skilled,  but  very  few  were  over 
40  years.  One  plant  was  equipped  with  bath  conveniences,  soap  and  towels 
being  furnished.  Two  plants  were  practically  without  washing  facilities. 
Bubbling  fountains  were  also  present  in  1  place,  individual  cups  in  another, 
while  toilets  were  fair  throughout.     There   was   considerable   scarcity  of   cus- 


356 

pidors  and  spitting  was  noted  about  the  floors,  although  anti-spit  signs  were 
posted  up  in  2  plants.  The  workday  was  9J  to  10  hours  in  all  places,  with  J 
to  I  hours  for  noon  recess.  Some  workers,  however,  finished  up  within  7^ 
to  8  hours. 

MANFACTURE  OF  BOILED  OIL.  —  This  was  carried  on  in  quarters 
by  itself.  A  certain  amount  of  litharge  and  red  lead  were  added  to  the  linseed 
oil,  and  required  the  services  of  2  or  3  men  in  each  plant.  There  was  some 
dust,  depending  upon  the  care  used  in  handling  the  powders.  Boiling  the  oil 
was  accompanied  by  some  heat  and  the  usual  odor  of  linseed  oil.  Hoods  should 
have  been  present  everywhere.  None  of  the  workers  appeared  to  have  suffered 
directly  from  any  of  the  hazards  indicated. 

MIXING  INGREDIENTS.  — The  mixing  of  various  ingredients  such  as 
china  clay,  boiled  oil,  benzine,  lithopone  and  lead  compounds  was  accompanied 
by  some  dtist  from  the  grinding  machines,  while  the  floors  were  pretty  well 
covered  with  the  dried  paste.  The  general  process  did  not  differ  from  the 
Manufacture  of  Paints.  Quarters  were  dark  a:nd  not  well  ventilated  in  1 
place.  In  1  place  it  was  said  no  lead  compounds  were  used,  but  otherwise  it 
was  hazardous  where  washing  facilities  were  absent.  Dermatitis  of  the  hands 
and  arms  was  noted.  Greasing  the  skin  or  wearing  gloves  would  largely 
prevent  this. 

FIRST  COATING  AND  TENTERING.  — Here  the  first  coat,  composed 
principally  of  casein  or  other  albuminous  substances  was  applied  to  the  fabric 
and  dried  on  machine  stretchers  which  tentered  the  cloth  to  prevent  shrinking. 
Clay,  water,  oil  and  ammonia  were  other  ingredients,  the  odor  of  ammonia 
being  slightly  noticeable.  Clay  dust  was  abundant  from  the  rolls  in  making 
the  application  in  one  establishment  and  was  uncontrolled. 

COATING  AND  DRYING.  — Here  the  fabric  received  its  subsequent 
coats  of  various  composition  hy  passing  through  calendering  rolls  and  from 
these  to  drying  rooms,  heated  by  steam  pipes,  and  in  one  instance,  equipped 
with  humidifiers.  There  was  a  fair  amount  of  fumes  noticeable  in  this  process, 
and  a  great  degree  of  heat.  The  work  was  rather  monotonous  and  required 
prolonged  standing.  There  appeared  to  be  some  risk  from  benzine  and  the 
lead  compounds  used,  the  latter  depending  especially  upon  personal  careless- 
ness. In  1  place  the  men  were  stripped  to  the  waist  (summer  season),  and 
room  ventilation  appeared  very  poor.  Steam  and  high  humidity  was  a  marked 
feature  of  drying  rooms.  One  building  was  equipped  with  large  ventilators  in 
the  ceilings.     Ventilation  here  seemed  quite  good,  but  the  heat  was  marked. 

DYE  HOUSE.  —  Anilin  dyes  were  used  principally.  Steam  and  humidity 
were  rather  marked  in  one  place. 

PRINTING  OR  STAMPING  ROOM.  — This  was  done  in  a  similar 
manner  to  lithographing.  A  benzine  solvent  used  in  the  inks  was  readily 
detected   in   the   atmosphere. 

VARNISHING  THE  FABRIC  — In  1  plant  the  management  was  con- 
templating the  installment  of  a  ventilating  system  for,  this  department  be- 
cause of  the  intensity  of  turpentine  and  other  fumes  which  became  so  strong 
that  men  were  not  able  to  stand  the  work  at  all. 

Some  other  processes  such  as  TRIMMING,  EMBOSSING,  INSPECT- 
ING, and  ROLLING  did  not  differ  from  the  usual  types  of  general  factory 
processes. 

Comments.  —  For  protective  devices  readers  are  referred  to  Doehring's 
article  in  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin  No.  44,  pp.  70-81. 


PART  VI. 

CLASSIFICATION      OF     OCCUPATIONAL     DISEASES      AND 
PLAINTS    BY    INDUSTRIES    AND    PROCESSES. 


COM- 


There  is  included  in  this  Part  a  summary  of  the  occupational 
diseases  and  disabilities  which  were  reported  to  the  Division  of  Occu- 
pational Diseases  during  1913  and  1914  (with  but  few  exceptions  all 
were  reported  between  July,  1913,  and  November  30,  1914).  Dupli- 
cate reports  have  been  excluded  and  only  cases  are  included,  which 
were  personally  seen  and  reported  by  physicians,  and  for  each  of 
which  there  is  a  personal  record  in  the  files  of  the  office,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  instances  where  employers  themselves  reported 
specific  cases. 

The  following  have  been  the  sources  of  information : 
(ij  Deaths  from  Occupational  Diseases. — These  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  any  record  of,  principally  because  some  terminal  com- 
plication is  the  immediate  cause  of  death.  The  following  is  taken  from 
the  death  certificates  of  the  State  Bureau  of  Vital  Statistics,  and  is  for 
lead  poisoning  only.  There  is  no  way,  from  the  certificates,  to  ascer- 
tain which  were  occupational  in  character  and  which  were  not,  but  it 
is  very  probable  that  practically  all  were  due  to  occupational  poisoning 
(only  those  of  191 3  have  been  included  in  the  large  table)  : 


RECORDED   DEATHS    FROM    LEAD    POISONING,   OHIO,    I909-I913. 


Occupation. 

Artist    

7909 
1 

19 10 

2 
1 

6 
1 

1 
1 

12 

1911 

1 
1 

6 

1 

9 

1912  .     191S 

1             2 

1 

1 
1 
10            11 
1 
1              1 

15            15 

Total 
1 

Farmer* 

3 

Laborer    

2 

Lead  Worker 

2 

Machinist    

2 

Merchant    

J 

Miner   ; . . 

1 

Painter     

6 

39 

Potter    

Printer     

Rubber  Worker    

Tinner 

1 

2 
3 
2 
1 

Totals     

8 

59 

*  One  farmer  died,  according  to  a  note  on  the  death  certificate,  from  "Lead 
poisoning  from  accidental  gun-shot  wound  of  26  years  standing".  This  tendency 
for  lead,  stored  in  the  body,  to  go  into  solution  years  afterward  and  produce 
poisoning  is  well  known.    This  instance,  of  course,  was  not  occupational. 

357 


358 

(2)  The  records  of  dispensaries,  hospitals  and  charitable  insti- 
tutions in  five  of  the  largest  cities  were  examined.  They  gave  very 
little  specific  or  trustworthy  information  and  most  of  this  was  prior 
to  1913,  and.  too  old  for  use.  There  was  no  filing  of  "Occupa- 
tional Complaints."  One  investigator  commented  upon  this  in  one  of 
the  largest  hospitals  as  follows :  "Because  of  manner  of  keeping 
records  it  was  very  hard  to  ascertain  whether  diseases  could  be  attrib- 
uted to  occupation ;  3,400  histories  were  looked  over."  In  short,  what 
should  have  been  a  very  valuable  source  of  information  proved  prac- 
ticaly  worthless.  The  reasons  for  this,  and  suggestions  for  meeting 
the  situation  are  taken  up  in  Part  VIII.  A  large  percentage  of  the 
adult  patients  with  medical  afflictions  in  these  institutions  are  occupa- 
tionally  afiflicted- — some  partly  so,  others  wholly  so. 

(3)  The  reporting  of  cases  by  company  physicians  according  to 
certain  legal  requirements  mentioned  elsewhere  yielded  a  total  of  68 
cases,  all  lead  poisoning.  Unfortunately  the  "lead  law"  is  so  narrow^ — 
it  specifies  "manufacturers"  only  of  certain  lead  compounds,  thus 
omitting  compounders,  mixers,  users,  etc. — that  less  than  half  a  dozen 
establishments  in  the  state  can  be  considered  as  coming  under  it.  In 
fact  all  of  the  above  mentioned  reports  were  received  from  the  physi- 
cians connected  with  four  establishments,  the  greater  part  of  them 
during  the  first  few  months  of  the  survey.  We  believe  the  reporting 
law  has  been  lived  up  to  quite  carefully  by  them,  and  with  the  gradual 
falling  off  of  such  cases  there  has  been  noted  a  lessening  in  the  severity 
of  the  symptoms  which  the  physicians  reported. 

(4)  The  Occupational  Disease  Reporting  Law  covering  all 
physicians  has  proved  very  much  of  a  failure.  Some  score  or  so  of 
cases  have  been  yielded  from  this  source.  Even  these  have  depended 
solely  upon  the  philanthropical  motives  and  self-sacrifice  of  the  physi- 
cians who  reported  them,  since  there  is  no  remuneration  for  such 
services,  nor  is  there  any  penalty  attached  for  ignoring  the  law.  Even 
the  best  intentioned  physician  finds  it  beyond  him  to  take  the  time  to 
get  the  information  together  which  the  reporting  blank  requires,  and 
then  five  or  ten  minutes  more  to  fill  out  the  blank  and  pay  the  envelope 
and  postage  cost  out  of  his  own  pocket.  In  addition  he  feels  that  he 
may  be  jeopardizing  his  patient's  relations  with  his  employer  and  so 
sacrifices  the  good  of  the  other  workers  to  the  immediate  good  of  the 
individual  patient.  In  this  respect  we  may  say  that  our  experience 
with  employers  throughout  the  state  is  that  not  one  in  fifty  would 
countenance  the  thought  for  an  instant  that  he  is  "running  a  house  of 
manslaughter,"  but  would  welcome  any  such  information  from  the 
physician  directly  and,  furthermore,  would  be  glad  to  get  any  sugges- 


359 

tions  which  the  physician  or  the  State  Board  of  Health  might  be  able 
to  furnish.  It  is  pointed  out,  also,  that  such  reported  information 
cannot  be  made  use  of  for  any  legal  purpose,  while  it  has  always  been 
considered  strictly  confidential  in '  this  office.  If  physicians  were 
allowed  a  dollar  or  two  for  reporting  the  details  of  an  occupational 
disease — much  less  than  they  are  allowed  for  doing  the  same  for  an 
average  insurance  application — it  is  more  than  likely  that  the  State 
Board  of  Health  would  soon  be  busy  enough  with  the  handling  of 
such  reports.  While  it  is  true  that  the  average  physician  does  not  see 
many  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  for  instance,  almost  anyone  questioned 
upon  the  subject  can  cite  a  case  of  bronchitis,  or  nephritis,  or  tuber- 
culosis, a  considerable  part  of  the  cause  for  which  has  been  some 
industrial  health-hazard,  and  usually  one  the  seriousness  of  which  any 
employer  would  be  glad  to  have  brought  to  his  attention. 

(5)  Hence  the  majority  of  the  cases  tabulated  below  have  been 
the  findings  of  the  special  staff  of.  physician-investigators  employed 
by  the  State  Board  of  Health.  The  cases  reported  from  all  sources 
have  been  carefully  classified  by  the  Statistical  Department.  Reported 
cases  were  of  four  types:  (i)  "positive,"  in  which  the  specific  symp- 
toms and  signs  were  present  as  well  as  the  specific  health-hazard  or 
hazards;  (2)  "tentative,"  in  which  disability  was  present  but  enough 
specific  symptoms  or  signs  were  not  present  t©  make  a  positive  diag- 
nosis, although  the  hazards  were  present;  (3)  "past  cases,"  in  which 
the  specific  symptoms  or  signs  were  present  prior  to  the  advent  of  the 
year  1913;  and  (4)  "hearsay  cases,"  in  which  information  which  could 
be  regarded  as  authentic  was  at  hand  as  well  as  the  actual  evidence  of 
the  hazards.  Only  the  first  two  types  of  cases  have  been  included  in 
the  figures.  In  the  last  column  the  director  of  the  survey  has  made  an 
attempt  to  portray  the  probable  prevalence  of  such  cases  as  have  been 
enumerated,  basing  his  opinions  upon  the  number  of  "past"  and  "hear- 
say" cases  reported  in  by  investigators,  the  extent  and  character  of  the 
health-hazards  present,  and  his  industrial  and  professional  experience. 
This  table  may  be  taken  as  very  conservative  in  that  it  does  not  give 
all  of  the  occupational  diseases  which  occurred  under  each  industry, 
simply  because  no  intensive  or  prolonged  investigation  was  made  of 
any  industry  so  that  only  such  cases  as  were  found  present  at  the 
particular  time  of  investigation,  either  in  the  plants  investigated  or  in 
the  community,  have  been  listed ;  these  makes  up  the  bulk  of  the 
figures,  and  to  these  have  been  added  all  cases  reported  by  other  physi- 
cians. For  instance,  in  the  Clothing  Industry  no  cases  of  occupational 
neurosis  (brachial  neuritis,  or  arm  palsy)  is  reported,  although  dispen- 
sary experience  shows  that  it  is  quite  common  among  ironers  and 


36o 

pressers,  of  whom  there  are  thousands  in  the  cities  of  the  state.  Such 
information,  however,  is  to  be  found  under  the  description  of  the 
various  processes  in  Part  V. 

In  the  last  column  the  signs  have  the  following  significance: 

(-|-)  an  occasional  case  occurs. 

+  a  small  percentage  of  cases  occurs  (say  1  to  5%  of  those  engaged). 

+  +  ^  larger  percentage  of  cases  occurs  (say  5  to  10%  of  those  engaged). 

+  +  +  a  still  larger  percentage  of  cases  occurs  (say  10  to  15%  of  those 
engaged). 

+  +  +  +  a  large  percentage  of  cases  occurs  (say  15%  or  more  of  those  en- 
gaged). 

The  tuberculosis  cases  listed  ("industrial  tuberculosis")  have 
been  very  largely  received  through  a  special  arrangement  with  the 
Cleveland  Board  of  Health  whereby  for  ten  months  during  the  year 
1914  the  moral  hazards,  domestic  and  housing  hazards  of  occupied 
persons  who  were  suffering  from  tuberculosis  were  carefully  compiled. 
Then  industrial  hazards,  as  found  by  investigators,  were  correlated 
with  the  individual  cases,  with  the  result  that  the  numbers  specified 
after  each  industry  are  to  be  considered  as  "industrial  tuberculosis," 
more  or  less  engendered  and  promoted  by  such  occupation.  Some  of 
the  cases  were  also  reported  from  Cincinnati,  and  a  few  from  other 
places. 


36i 


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372 


ALPHABETICAL    LIST   OF   OCCUPATIONAL   DISEASES    AND   DISABILITIES 
SHOWING  TYPES  AND   NUMBERS   OF   CASES. 


Disease  or  Disability. 


Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 


Posi- 
tive. 


Tenta- 
tive. 


Acid  caries  of  teeth 

Alcohol    (methyl)    poisoning 

Amyl  acetate  poisoning. 

Anemia    (painting,   lacquering) 

Anilin  poisoning .  .  . 

Anthracosis    ;  •  ■  •_• 

Antimony  poisoning 

Appendicitis    

Benzine,  benzol  poisoning 

Blind    spells    (light) 

Brass  chills    

Brass  itch  

Bronchitis,  asthma,  catarrh 

Burns    (zinc  chloride) 

Bursitis    (olecranon)    

Byssinosis    

Calcicosis    , 

Compressed  air  illness 

Conjunctivitis,  blepharitis   

Cramps   (heat)    ., 

CS2,  CI4,  S2CI2  poisoning 

Cyanide  ulcers   

Deafness   

Derniatitis,  eczema,  pruritus,  ulcers. 

Dyspnea    .• 

Enamel  fume  poisoning 

Epistaxis    (nose  bleed) 

Eye-strain    (welding)    

Flat   foot   

Fume  poisoning   

Gas   poisoning    

Glue    fume(?)    intoxication 

Heat  prostrations   

Hydroflouric   acid   poisoning. . . ' 

Keratitis    (wire   mill) 

Lead  poisoning    

Nitroglycerine  poisoning    

Occupational    neuritis    

Occupational  neurosis   

Pharyngitis    

Pneumonokoniosis    

Rheumatism    

Rhinitis,  choryza    

Siderosis    

Tobacco  heart 

Tobacco  poisoning 


24 
6 
1 
3 

1 


1 

33 

1 

117 

,7 

16 

•2 

1 


1 
1 
9 
5 
9 
1 
2 
39 
9 


2 
1 
1 
2 
12 
1 
2 
1 
1 
544 


2 
4 
1 
2 
7 
9 
12 
2 
2 


2 
1 
2 
3 
14 


138 
3 


373 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST  OF  OCCUPATIONAL  DISEASES  AND  DISABILITIES 
SHOWING  TYPES  AND  NUMBER  OF  CASES. CONCLUDED. 


Disease  or  Disability. 

Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 

/ 

tive. 
Posi- 

tive. 
Tenta- 

Tuberculosis    

301 
2 
3 

8 

21 

Turpentine,  poisoning   

2 

Zinc  chills   ■ 

1 

Other  occupational   poisonings 

Total    

1,204 

211 

OCCUPATIONAL    LEAD    POISONING    BY    INDUSTRIES    AND   TRADE 

PROCESSES. 


Industry. 


Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 


Posi- 
tive. 


Tenta- 
tive. 


Agricultural   Implements. 
Automobiles  and  Parts... 


Babbittinp-  Metals  and  Solder. 
Bicycles,  Sewing  Mach.,  etc... 
Brass  and  Bronze  Products... 
Carriages,  Wagons  and  Parts. 
Cars  and  Repairs  (by  rail- 
roads)  

Cars    and    Repairs     (not    by 

roads)     

Cash  Registers  and  Calc.  Mach 

Chemicals    

Coffins,  Vaults,   etc 

Copper,  Tin,  etc 

Cutlery  and  Tools 

Elec.  Appar.,  etc 


Painting,  bronzing 

Carpentering  on  primed 
work ;  painting,  sanding, 
etc.;  tempering;  not  speci- 
fied   

Melting  (soft  metals) 

Painting,  varnishing 

Founding,  soldering 

Painting,  sanding 

Carpentering  on  primed 
work;  painting;  varnishing 
soldering   


Painting,  varnishing 

'  Tempering  

I  Lead  burning,  ore  crushing. . . 
I  Brass     and     lead     founding; 
I       painting,  varnishing;  pollsh- 

I       ing,  buffing;  solderincr 

I  Machine   .shopping;   soldering. 

Tempering   

I  Lead  burning,  storage  batter- 
I      ies,  soldering 


79     1 

6 

1     I 

1 

2     1. 

3     1 

2 

42     1 
I 

13 

3 

3 

6     I 

1 

2     1 

6     i. 

I 

! 

13     1 

4 

3    1. 

7     1 

1 

1 

107     1 

10 

374 


OCCUPATIONAL    LEAD    POISONING    BY    INDUSTRIES    AND   TRADE 
Processes — Continued. 


Industry. 


Emery   Wheels    

Enameling-  and  Japanning 

Explosives    - 

Files    

Flags,   Regalia,  etc 

Foundry     and     Mach.     Shop 

Products    

Furniture  and  Cabinets 

Glass   Cutting,  Staining,   Art.. 
Glass  Mfg 


Trade  Processes. 


Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 


Instruments    (scientific) 

Junk    

Iron  and  Steel  Rolling  Mills. 
Lead  Bar,  Pipes,  Sheets,  etc. 
Lead  Oxides  and  Carbonates. 
Leather,  Tanned  and  Curried. 

Musical    Instruments 

Oil  Refining  

Paint  and  Varnish    (Mfg.)... 

P  a  i  n  t  i  n  o-    and    Varnishing 

(Non-mfg.)*    

Porcelain  Enameled  Iron  Ware! 
Pottery    ' 


Printing   and   Publishing. 


Rubber  Goods. 


Safes  and  Vaults 

Scales  and  Balances 

Shipbuilding  and  Boats... 
Signs  and  Adv.  Novelties. 
Smelting  and  Refining.  . . . 
Stereo  and   Electroplating. 

Stoves   and   Furnaces 

Toys  and  Games 

Wire  (Works  and  Mills)  . 


Miscellaneous 


Babbitting,  moldin 

Enameling   

Lead  founding 

File  cutting,  tempering 

Painting    

Die  casting,  founding,  paint 

ing,  soldering,  tempering...! 

^Painting,  varnishing I 

Painting,  assembling I 

Lead    putty    making,    mixing  ! 

ingredients  I 

Metal  grinding,  soldering I 

Smelting  I 

Tinning I 

Various  processes I 

Various  orocesses I 

Enameling    ' 

Assembling  metal  parts I 

Handling  lead  pipes I 

Grinding,  mixing,  filling  con-  ! 

tainers,  soldering,  labeling..! 

I 
House  oainting I 

Enameling    I 

Glaze  mixing,   glaze   diooing.  ' 

straining     glaze,      washin"'  I 

saggers,  p-lost  kilns,  fettling,  I 

decorating    and    t  i  n  t  i  n  o-.  I 

riig<?ering),  not   snecified...' 

L  i  n  o  t  V  p  i  n  g,    monotyping,   I 

printing,   tvpesetting ' 

Compounding,    mixing    mills,  I 

specialty    work ' 

Painting,  sanding I 

Painting I 

Soldering    I 

Painting    I 

Metal   refining I 

Casting   ' 

Soldering    ' 

Machine  shopping I 

Galvanizing,    painting,     stove  I 

tending  I 

Unknown    I 


1 
18 
36 


1 
25 

21 

4 


fil 


4R 
fi 
7 
1 
1 
4 
1 
3 


Total  Lead  Poisoning  casesi      ?)44 


10 
1 
1 


38 
1 

p 
1 
1 


138 


*Ten  were  deaths. 


375 


OCCUPATIONAL,    DERMATITIS    (AND    ECZEMA,    PURITUS.    ULCERS)    BY 
INDUSTRIES  AND  TRADE  PROCESSES. 


Industry. 


Trade  Processes. 


Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 


1 


Automobiles  and  Parts 

Boots  and  Shoes 

Boxes,  Fancy  and  Paper 

Brass  and  Bronze  Products.  .. 

Clothing  and  Textiles 

Cordage,  Twine,  Jute 

Dry  Cleaning  and  Dyeing. . .  . 

Elec.  Appar.,  etc 

Enameling  and  Japanning.  ..  . 
Foundry     and     Mach.      Shop 

Products    

Furniture  and  Cabinets 

Glass  Mfg 

Iron  and  Steel  Mills 

Lime    i\lfg 

Marble  &  Stone 

Oil  Cloth  and  Linoleum 

Paint  and  Varnish  Mfg 

Paper  and  Roofijig  Paper.... 
Rubber  Goods 

Soap    y  : 

Stereo-  and  Electrotyping. . . . 

.Stoves  and  Furnaces 

Toys  and  Games 


Machine  shopping  (oil) .  . . 

Closing,   blackening 

Paper  box  making  (glue) 

Acid  dipping 

Cleaning,  dyeing 

Combing,  stranding  (oil) . 

Dyeing,    cleaning 

Pitching  dry  batteries 

Enameling    

Welding,  electroplating... 


Polishing,   veneering 

Mixing  ingredients   (arsenic), 

decorating   (benzine) 

Galvanizing    (sal   ammoniac) , 

Grinding,   slaking , 

Surfacing  (oxalic  acid) 

Mixing  ingredients 

■Cleaning  with   benzine,   mfg. 

varnish  

Sizing  with  alum 

Specialty  work,  making  inner 

tubes,  cold  cure 

Handling   soap 

Tending   batteries , 

Metal  cleaning   (naphtha)  . .  . , 
Brazing  


Total    Dermatitis    Cases... 


1  I- 
2 

1  I- 

1  I. 

1  I- 

2  |. 

1  i- 

3  . 

1  I- 

3  |. 

6  i. 


3 
1 

2 

1 

2     I. 


41 


376 


OCCUPATIONAL,   BENZINE   AND    BENZOL    POISONING   BY  INDUSTRIE3S  AND 

TRADE  PROCESSES. 


Industry. 


Trade  Processes. 


Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 


tive. 
Posi- 


tive., 
Tenta- 


Painting,  enameling 

Cementing,  finishing 

Painting,  varnishing,  etc. 

Dyeing,  cleaning 

Enameling 


Agricultural    Implements. . .  . 

Boots  and   Shoes *. 

Brass  and  Bronze  Products. 

Dry  Cleaning  and  Dyeing. . . 

Explosives    

Furniture  and  Cabinets |  Shellacing,  varnishing. 

Iron  &  Steel  Mills |  Painting   '. . 

Paint  and  Varnish    (Mfg.) . ...  |  Mfg.   varnish 

Pottery    I  Decorating 

Rubber   I  Calendering,    cement   mixing, 

dipping  molds,  making  in- 
ner tubes,  specialty  work, 
I       tire  building 

Stereo-  and  Electroplating.  . . .  |  Cast  scrubbing 

Stoves  and  Furnaces |  Blackening   

Wire  (Works  and  Mills) 1  Painting    


Total 


33 


14 


377 


OCCUPATIONAL    BRASS    POISONING    BY  INDUSTRIES   AND  TRADE 

PROCESSES. 


Industry. 

Trade  Processes. 

Number  of  re- 
ported cases 
of  disease  or 
disability  by 
type  of  case. 

Posi- 
tive. 

Tenta- 
tive. 

Bicycles,  Sewing  Mach.,  etc... 
Brass  and  Bronze  Products... 

Brazing    molding 

7 

80 

10 
10 

12 

3 

Brass     founding,    buffing, 
polishing  

Cars    and    Repairs     (by    rail- 
roads)          

Brass  founding 

Cash  Registers  and  Calc.  Mach. 
Electric  Appar     etc 

Brass  founding 

Brass  founding 

Foundry     and     Mach.     Shop 
Products    

Brass  founding 

1 

Galvanizing    

Iron  and  Steel  Mills 

Toys  and  Games 

■ 

Galvanizing    

1 

Galvanizing    

1 
1 

Brazing              

Total    

1 

124 

2 

PART  VII. 
SPECIAL    INVESTIGATIONS    AND    PUBLICITY. 


LEAD  POISONING ITS  CHIEF  CAUSES,  WITH  OBSERVATIONS  ON  ITS  DIAG- 
NOSIS AND  PREVENTION.* 


Emery  R.  Hayhurst. 

Etiology  —  If  the  "rubbing  down"  of  lead-paste  "fillers"  and  the 
dry  sandpapering  of  painted  surfaces  were  done  away  with,  about 
nine-tenths  of  all  cases  of  lead  poisoning,  at  least  as  they  are  reported 
in  the  State  of  Ohio,  would  be  stopped  forthwith.  The  small  village 
and  the  large  city  are  very  much  alike  in  their  relative  production  of 
cases  of  lead  poisoning.  Shop  painters  and  "sanders"  including  those 
who  work  in  the  paint  rooms  of  many  kinds  of  factories,  particularly 
where  wood  products  are  made,  as  vehicles,  automobiles,  furniture, 
etc.,  and  enamelers  of  wood  and  iron- — these  make  up  the  majority  of 
the  cases  reported.  Many  of  these  workers  call  themselves  simply 
"laborers". 

The  industries  of  our  state  also  engage  thousands  of  men  in  the 
compounding  and  mixing  rooms  of  paint  and  varnish  factories,  rubber 
works,  potteries,  glass  works,  battery  works,  enamel  works,  type 
making,  etc.,  who  are  more  or  less  exposed  to  lead  salts  in  the  form  of 
dust. 

Lead  may  get  into  the  human  system  as  follows:  (i)  the  inhala- 
tion and  ingestion  of  lead-containing  dusts,  paints,  pastes,  enamels  or 
oils;  (2)  the  inhalation  and  ingestion  of  lead-containing  fumes  from 
molten  processes;  and  (3)  absorption  through  the  skin.  In  the  vast 
majority  of  instances  the  form  and  methods  of  ingress  given  under 
(i)  cause  the  poisoning.  The  industrial  absorption  of  lead  through 
the  skin  is  now  denied  by  most  authorities. 

The  capriciousness  of  the  individual  in  his  susceptibility  to  lead 
poisoning  is  remarkable.  Some  develop  the  acute  symptoms  within  as 
short  a  time  as  two  weeks,  while  again  we  come  across  others  who  have 
been  engaged  in  the  work  more  or  less  steadily  for  a  period  of  30  to  40 
years.     Then,  after  this  time  the  worker  may  suddenly  sicken  with  all 


*  Reprinted  from  Monthly  Bulletin,  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health,  May,  1P14. 

378 


379 

the  symptoms  and  signs  of  acute  lead  poisoning.  Great  susceptibility 
is  by  far  the  rule,  however.  Probably  not  more  than  i  in  lo  workers 
shows  any  appreciable  degree  of  natural  tolerance.  On  this  account 
most  emplo\ers  of  shop  painters  depend  upon  a  large  force  of  floating 
labor.  Casual  workers,  however,  are  about  7  times  more  liable  to  de- 
velop lead  poisoning  than  are  steady  employes.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  process  of  mixing  ingredients,  "filling,"  "rubbing  down" 
and  "sanding,  which  do  not  require  much  skill.  Where  numbers  are 
employed  at  these  processes  the  foremen  are  accustomed  to  the  drop- 
ping out  of  men  after  a  few  weeks'  or  a  few  months'  work,  while 
some  employers  are  far-seeing  enough  to  insist  upon  a  workman's  quit- 
ting as  soon  as  the  first  evidence  of  colic,  digestive  or  nervous 
symptoms  appears.  Other  overseers  follow  the  plan  of  shifting  the 
men  about  from  one  process  to  another  so  as  to  keep  them  in  the 
employ  as  long  as  possible,  and  to  conserve  their  health  by  as  little 
continuous  exposure  to  lead  paint-dust  as  possible. 

I  do  not.  mean  to  imply  that  lead  poisoning  is  not  just  as  frequent 
and  even  more  severe  in  other  processes  of  manufacturing  than  those 
just  cited,  but  the  total  number  of  workers  so  employed  is  quite  insig- 
nificant when  compared  to  the  class  under  discussion.  In  at  least  150 
different  industries  workers  come  more  or  less  in  contact  with  lead. 
In  many  of  these  the  presence  of  lead  in  the  fancy  branded  materials 
used  is  not  suspected. 

One  process  often  engaged  in  by  girls  and  women  in  factories  is 
soldering.  This  is  a  fairly  frequent  cause  of  lead  poisoning  as  solder  is 
usually  50%  lead.  With  females  it  has  a  double  significance.  The 
sex  is  peculiarly  susceptible  to  the  nervous  and  mental  types  of  plumb- 
ismj  and  in  severe  form.  While  they  may  have  a  gradual  development 
of  anemia,  anorexia,  insomnia,  with  a  tendency  to  vertigo  and  syncope, 
not  uncommonly  acute  nervous  or  maniacal  symptoms  light  up  suddenly 
without  a  suggestion  of  prodromes.  Further  than  this,  lead  afifects 
posterity.  M.  Paul^  noted  that  in  4  women  who  were  habitually  ex- 
posed to  the  influence  of  lead,  and  had  pregnancies,  10  terminated  by 
abortion,  2  by  premature  confinements,  3  went  the  full  time — but  i  of 
the  3  children  was  born  dead;  so  that,  out  of  the  whole  15,  one,  only, 
lived. 

The  offspring  (32  in  number)  of  7  men  who  were  suffering  from 
lead  poisoning  had  the  following  disasters  :  11  were  prematurely  ])orn, 
I  still-born,  and  deaths  were  so  frequent  among  the  infants  that  at 
the  end  of  the  third  year  only  3  of  the  32  were  living.  In  Chicago 
a  group  of  33  married  painters,  45  years  of  age  or  over,  were  found 
to  have  an  average  progeny  of  2.67  born  and  1.79  living.  Seven  had  not 


38o 

offspring  at  all.  These  husbands  had  descended  from  parents  who  had 
nearly  2>^  times  this  number  of  offspring.  It  is  not  likely  that  social 
conditions  alone  account  for  this  decrease  in  progeny  in  the  space  of 
one  generation. 

Diagnosis  —  Acute  lead  poisoning  should  be  easily  diagnosed,  but 
there  seems  to  be  a  great  hesitancy  on  the  part  of  physicians  to 
make  a  positive  diagnosis.  While  intestinal  colic  is  fairly  constant, 
other  chief  features  are  breakfast  anorexia,  extending  later  to  all 
meals ;  metallic  taste ;  nausea,  with  or  without  vomiting;  loss  of  weight; 
loss  of  strength;  constipation,  perhaps  alternating  with  diarrhea;  pain 
in  the  lumbar  region;  pains  in  the  joints;  headache;  drowsiness; 
insomnia ;  confusion ;  blind  spells  and  diziness.  In  a  few  days  to  a  few 
weeks  such  symptoms  are  followed  by  a  weakness  of  the  hands,  arms, 
or  legs,  with  a  tendency  to  "wrist  drop,"  and  less  often  "footdrop," 
"shoulder  drop,"  or  even  "head:  drop."  The  set  of  muscles  most  used 
is  apparently  the  set  most  affected.  Associated  with  these  symptoms  is 
a  "blue  line"  (it  may  be  only  a  few  collections  of  punctate  spots)  in 
the  gums  in  about  one-third  of  the  cases  only.  Invariably  there  is  a 
peculiar  pallor  affecting  the  face,  and  especially  the  lips.  There  may  be 
a  slight  yellowishness  of  the  conjuctivae,  tremor  of  the  tongue,  of  the 
hands,  and  a  tremulous  voice,  while  the  examining  physician  may 
note  a  weakness  in  ocular  movements  and  a  tendency  to  "springy 
pupil"  when  exposed  to  the  diagnostic  lamp.  After  a  short  time 
emaciation  may  set  in,  though  it  is  by  no  means  a  constant  manifesta- 
tion. Many  times  the  abdominal  symptoms  are  mistaken  for  obstipa- 
tion, ileus,  hepatic  colic,  renal  colic,  vesical  colic,  tabletic  crises  and 
appendicitis.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  true  appendicitis  may  be 
present'  as  an  accompaniment  of  the  spastic  constipation  present. 
Fever  is  absent  as  a  rule,  but  various  complication  may  cause  it. 

When  the  colic  is  present  there  is  apt  to  be  present,  also,  a  slow, 
hard  pulse  and  an  increased  blood  pressure,  but  these  may  be  counter- 
acted temporarily  by  the  effects  of  nausea  or  collapse.  It  may  also  be 
possible  to  discover  basophilic  degeneration,  or  punctate  "stippling",  in 
the  red  corpuscles  in  a  properly  stained  blood  smear,  but  unless  these 
are  present  to  about  the  extent  of  i  in  every  lOO  red  cells  they  should 
not  be  given  much  significance,  for  it  is  well  known  that  they  occur  in 
other  conditions,  such  as  dysentery,  cancer,  leukemia,  cachectic  states, 
septic  processes,  and,  indeed,  in  secondary  anemias.  Their  importance 
as  a  diagnostic  feature  has  been  greatly  over-estimated.  Furthermore, 
they  are  often  absent  in  well-marked  cases  of  acute  lead  poisoning,  or 
only  present  at  intervals. 


38i 

Liebermann's  intoxication  test- — increase  of  the  resistance  quotient 
of  the  red  blood  corpuscles  to  hypotonic  salt  solutions  (0.45%  NaCl) — 
is  much  more  important  than  basophilic  degeneration,  particularly 
when  the  intoxication  is  due  to  lead.  It  is  necessary  to  mention  that 
this  test  may  be  vitiated  in  a  given  case  if  the  individual  has  been 
more  than  usually  exposed  to  benzine,  naptha  and  some  other  volatile 
poisons  within  a  period  of  48  hours  since  these  cause  a  decrease  in  the 
resistance  quotient. 

The  urine  in  lead  poisoning  is  usually  highly  acid ;  indican  may  be 
demonstrated  to  be  present  in  excess  (Lavelle's  test),  while  lead  can  be 
demonstrated  (the  electrolytic  process  advised,^  —  see,  also,  next 
article)  in  many  cases.  However,  as  lead  is  largely  excreted  by  the 
intestines,  the  feces  prove  to  be  the  chief  excrement  in  which  to  dem- 
onstrate the  presence  of  lead.  Occasionally,  severe  cases  may  show 
no  elimination  at  all.  In  such  cases  it  is  probable  that  all  the  lead  is 
being  retained  in  the  body.  The  presence  in  the  urine  of  albumen  and 
casts  is  only  of  secondary  importance  since  these  may  be  due  to  so 
many  other  factors. 

By  way  of  summary,  the  following  features  obtain  in  diagnosing 
acute  and  sub-acute  lead  poisoning : 

( 1 )  Lead  poisoning  should  be  sought  for  in  all  workers  and  per- 
sons exposed  to  lead  in  any  form,  particularly  if  lead  may  be  inhaled 
in  the  form  of  dust.  (All  such  persons  should  be  considered  suspicious 
cases  of  plumbism). 

(2)  A  "lead  line"  in  the  gums  means  the  absorption  of  lead  into 
the  system  and  its  distribution  by  the  blood  stream,  which,  carrying  a 
fraction  of  the  absorbed  lead  through  the  capillaries  of  the  gums,  per- 
mits it  to  be  precipitated  and  held  there  through  the  action  of  the  sul- 
phides in  the  food.  While  a  true  "lead  line"  shows  that  the  individual 
is  "leaded,"  still  the  "lead  line"  does  not  mean  lead  poisoning  neces- 
sarily, for  there  may  not  be  enough  accumulation  in  the  system  to  pro- 
duce any  symptoms  of  intoxication.  All  "lead  line"  cases,  however,  are 
highly  suspicious,  and  undoubtedly  will  develop  signs  of  intoxication, 
particularly  if  not  removed  at  once  from  exposure.  (A  "lead  line  case" 
warrants  a  tentative  diagnosis  of  lead  poisoning). 

(3)  Lead  demonstrated  in  the  urine  does  not  furnish  proof - 
positive  evidence  of  lead  poisoning,  since  the  metal  is,  perchance,  being 
eliminated  as  fast  as  it  is  absorbed,  i.  e.,  not  enough  is  accumulating  to 
produce  intoxication.     {Tentative  diagnosis). 

(4)  Lead  demonstrated  in  the  feces,  also,  does  not  warrant  a 
diagnosis  of  lead  poisoning  by  itself.  It  does  not  even  imply  lead  ab- 
sorption, for  the  lead  may  have  been  ingested  in  an  insoluble  and  non- 


3^2 

absorbable  form.  In  fact,  lead  may  be  absorbed  through  the  respir- 
atory tract  and  eliminated  through  the  intestinal  mucous  membrane, 
but  its  mere  demonstration  in  the  feces  does  not  prove  lead  poisoning 
for  the  same  reason  as  just  stated  in  connection  with  the  urine.  (Again, 
only  a  tentative  diagnosis). 

(5)     Lead  poisoning  actually  exists  when  evidence  of  actual  in- 
toxication is  added  to  a  history  of  exposure,  or  is  added  to  (a)  the 


Fig.  100.     Lead  Poisoning. 

The  photograph  shows  the  dark  lead  line  in  the  gum  margin,  as  well 

as  on  the  teeth. 


sign  of  absorption,  i.  e.,  the  "lead  line",  or   (b)   the  absolute  sign  of 
elimination,  i.  e.,  lead  in  urine.     {Positive  diagnosis), 

(6)  This  necessitates  a  statement  of  the  early  signs  and  symp- 
toms of  lead  intoxication.  The  chief  constant  and  early  physical  sign 
of  lead  intoxication  is  pallor  of  the  face,  including  the  lips,  which  is 
due  more  to  arterial  spasm,  (peripheral  or  centric?)  than  to  anemia. 
The  chief  symptoms  are,  in  somewhat  descending  order,  digestive  dis- 


383 

turhances,  insomnia  and  weakness.  Unless  the  pallor  is  due  to  tem- 
porary nausea  or  collapse,  it  will  usually  be  found  to  be  accompanied 
by  an  increased  blood-pressure.  The  Liebermann  test  will  be  found 
positive  in  acute  cases. 

(y)  The  sodium  sulphide  test  (Na^S,  5%  solution)  applied  with 
an  applicator  to  the  hands,  arms  and  face,  is  very  useful  in  dem- 
onstrating the  exposure  to  lead  in  the  case  of  a  workman  ignorant  of 
the  materials  to  which  he  is  exposed,  and  where  the  metal  has  had  a 
chance  to  get  into  the  epithelium  of  the  exposed  parts.  A  brown  or 
black  line  will  often  result  in  a  painter,  even  after  ten  days  or  two 
weeks  from  the  time  of  his  last  exposure,  in  spite  of  many  ablutions  in 
the  meantime.  The  test  is  invaluable  in  the  factory  "wash-up"  room 
as  a  means  of  determining  whether  ablution  has  been  thorough  enough. 
In  this  case  the  solution  may  be  kept  in  a  pail  and  the  supposedly 
cleansed  hands  dipped  into  it.  The  fact  that  the  discoloration  may  be 
due  to  other  black  sulphides,  such  as  mercury,  copper,  bismuth  and 
nickel  is  almost  negligible  since  painters  are  so  little  liable  to  exposure 
to  such  metals. 

Chronic  lead  poisoning  —  Those  workers  who  do  not  develop 
symptoms  of  acute  or  sub-acute  lead  poisoning  may  be  considered  as 
having  superior  eliminative  capabilities.  But  with  these  a  slowly  ac- 
cumulating set  of  signs  and  symptoms  throughout  years  of  time  ulti- 
mately ends  in  premature  senility,  various  degenerative  diseases,  or  the 
sudden  onset  of  Bright's  disease,  heart  failure,  pneumonia,  influenza, 
tuberculosis,  pleurisy  and  the  like.  In  fact,  long-period  workers 
appear  to  go  to  pieces  suddenly  in  the  end.  With  these  there  has 
undoubtedly  been  progressing,  for  a  long  time,  fibrosis  affecting  es- 
pecially the 'arterioles  of  the  kidneys  and  of  the  intestines.  Of  100 
house-painters  recently  examined  in  the  city  of  Chicago'*  (these  are 
less  exposed  to  lead  than  the  indoor  factory-painters)  indications  of 
chronic  plumbism  were  found  in  59  instances,  or  59%,  while  26  gave  a 
clear  history  of  acute  lead  poisoning  at  some  time  in  the  past.  As  there 
is  an  average  of  seven  painters  to  every  1,000  of  urban  population,  the 
State  of  Ohio  has  something  over  20,000  workers  so  engaged. 

The  first  100  deaths  in  a  large  Painters'  Union^  in  Chicago  re- 
vealed five  chief  causes :  organic  heart  disease,  pulmonary  tuberculosis, 
nephritis,  pneumonia  and  accident  at  work.  The  average  age  at  death 
from  these  five  causes  was  from  two  to  seven  years  less  than  the  cor- 
responding death  rate  in  the  city  at  large. 

Besides  a  history  of  exposure,  chronic  lead  poisoning  has  for  its 
chief  diagnostic  factors  the  following:  (i)  A  diseased  condition  of 
the  gums  which  has  usually  supplanted  a  previous  "leadline".    It  is  not 


384 

uncommon  to  find  associated  a  "lead  line,"  wasted  or  diseased  gums, 
dental  caries  with  yellowish  to  blackish  discolorations  and  the  absence 
of  many  teeth. 

(2)  Atrophy,  particularly  of  the  most  used  sets  of  muscles,  with 
accompanying  signs  of  tremors,  weakness,  muscular  inco-ordination, 
decreased  or  absent  muscular  reflexes,  and  perhaps  fibrillations  should 
be  sought  for. 

(3)  Vascular  hypertention,  association  with  arterio-sclerosis, 
cardiac  weakness  upon  not  undue  exercise,  and  chronic  Bright's  dis- 
ease, are  very  frequent  concomitants.  The  Johnson-Lavis*'  observation 
that  systolic  pressure  should  normally  not  be  over  the  number  of  years 
of  age  plus  100  for  adults  is  also  found  to  be  exceeded  in  a  good  pro- 
portion of  all  lead-exposed  workers. 

(4)  "Rheumatism",  of  chronic  type,  particularly  of  the  ankles, 
feet  and  back  is  a  common  complaint.  Lead  gout  or  "poor  man's  gout" 
may  be  present. 

(5)  I  would  especially  call  attention  again  to  the  weakness  of 
the  hand  grip  in  nearly  all  painters,  as  demonstrated  by  the  hand  dyna- 
mometer - — ■  this  is  more  apt  to  be  present  than  signs  of  weakened 
dorsi-flexion  of  the  wrist,  and  is  more  likely  to  be  found  in  the  hand 
most  used,  contrary  to  the  findings  in  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  etc. 

(6)  Unquestionably  the  application  of  Barach's'^  Cardia  Energy 
Index  (the  systolic  pressure  multiplied  by  the  pulse  rate  per  minute 
plus  the  dyastolic  pressure  multiplied  by  the  pulse  rate  per  minute) 
would  show  a  degree  of  hyper- normal  energy  expenditure  in  most 
cases  of  considerably  over  the  20,000  mm.  of  Hg.  per  minute  which  he 
considers  the  highest  admissible  for  the  normal  person. 

(7)  Basophilic  degeneration  of  the  red  corpuscles,  which  signifies 
acute  intoxication  of  progressive  character,  is  uniformly  absent  in 
chronic  plumbism.     So,  also,  is  Liebermann's  test. 

(8)  The  urine  should  be  examined  for  lead,  if  doubt  still  exists. 
Preventive  measures  —  Various  authorities  state  that  zinc  can  be 

substituted  for  lead  for  all  interior  painting  and  to  a  large  extent  for 
exterior  work.  The  rubbing  down  and  dry  sandpapering  of  painted 
surfaces  has  been  practically  eliminated  in  certain  foreign  countries,  as 
well  as  hand  work,  the  latter,  by  dipping  and  spraying  processes.  In 
many  industries  wet  rotten  stone  or  pumice-stone  powder  applied  with 
a  bass-wood  block  or  piece  of  felt  can  be  used  without  the  creation  of 
any  dust.  Finally,  the  dust  arising  from  sandpapering  can  be  entirely 
checked  by  the  use  of  mineral  oil  to  take  up  the  dust.  This  oil  is  cheap 
and  does  not  damage  the  work  nor  interfere  with  speed.    The  wearing 


385 

of  wet  sponge  respirators  is  an  additional  precaution,  but  these  will 
not  in  themselves  prevent  plumbism. 

Finally,  we  submit  below  a  table^  showing  the  preventive  measures 
which  have  been  adopted  in  Germany,  France  and  Belgium  to  prevent 
lead  poisoning  among  painters.  It  is  applicable  to  many  other  workers 
as  well. 


COMPARATIVE  ANALYSIS  OF  LEGISLATION    RELATING  TO   LEAD    POISONING 

IN    GERMANY,    FRANCE  AND    BELGIUM    FOR   INDUSTRIES    USING 

PAINT    CONTAINING   LEAD. 


Germany. 


France. 


Belgium. 


Clothes  closets. 

Wash  and  dressing 
rooms. 

Wash  water. 

Soap. 

Towels.  " 

Nail  brushes. 

Must  wash  before  meals, 


No   food   in  work  room. 
No    alcoholic    drink    in 
work  room. 

No  tobacco  during  work. 


Overalls. 

Caps. 

Medical  inspection  every 
six  months. 


"Necessary    facilities    for  I  Wash  water, 
cleanliness."  I 

Overalls      in      all      moist  I  Soap, 
scraping     off,     and     in 
painting       with       white 
lead. 

Employers      must      hang     Towels, 
text    of    law    in    work 
places    and    where   men 
receive  wages. 

Scraoing     off     of     white  I  Means  to  rinse  mouth, 
lead    paint    by   the    dry 
method  is  forbidden. 


White  lead  only  used  in 
pasty  condition. 

Manipulating  with  bare 
hands  any  material 
containing  white  lead 
forbidden. 

All  .tools  kept  clean. 


Wash  before  meals. 


Wash  before  leaving 
shop. 


Food  brought  in  to  be  in 
tight  packages. 


No    alcoholic    drink    in 
shop. 

Work    clothing    and    head 
covering. 


Medical    inspection    every 
3  months. 


25    o.  D. 


386 


Comparative  Analysis,   Etc.  —  Concluded. 


Germany. 


France. 


Belgium. 


Leaded  man  removed  to 
occupation  where  no 
contact  with  lead. 

Men  breaking  regula- 
tions after  warning 
to  be  discharged. 

Health  register. 

Employers  must  indi- 
cate to  workmen  the 
dangers. 

Employers  must  hand 
men  copy  of-  the  reg- 
ulations. 

"The  rubbing  off  of  dry 
paint  which  cannot  be 
proved  to  be  free  of 
lead  must  only  be 
done  after  previous 
moistening."      (1905). 


Cleaning     must     not 
done  in  dry  state. 


be 


After  July  20,  1914,  "the 
use  of  white  lead,  of 
linseed  oil  mixed  with 
lead  and  all  specialized 
products  contain  ing 
white  lead  will  be  for- 
bidden by  law  in  all 
painting  no  matter  of 
what  nature  carried  on 
by  working  painters 
either  on  the  out  or  in- 
s  i  d  e  of  buildings." 
(1909.) 


No  men  addicted  to  liquor 
to  be  employed. 


Health  register. 

Dry  working,  scraping  or 
rubbing  of  white  lead 
surfaces    forbidden. 

Mixing,  grinding,  manip- 
ulation, etc.,  of  white 
lead  or  other  lead  com- 
pounds forbidden  ex- 
cept when  in  such  way 
that  workers  do  not 
come  in  contact  with 
lead  with  their  hands. 
(1905). 

After  August  20,  1910, 
"the  sale,  transporta- 
tion, or  use  of  white 
lead  in  powder,  grains, 
or  cakes,  intended  for 
painting  is  forbidden." 
For  this  purpose  white 
lead  may  only  be  sold, 
transported  or  used  in 
form  of  paint  mixed  or 
ground  in  oil.     (1909). 


LIEBERMANN'S  RED  CORPUSCLE  RESISTANCE  TEST.  —  Normal 
blood  corpuscles  will  hemolize  (lose  their  hemoglobin)  in  "plain  water."  So 
also  will  they  in  hypotonic  salt  solutions  of  less  than  0.5%  strength.  But  the 
blood  corpuscles  in  lead  intoxication  become  resistant,  so  that  in  salt  solutions 
as  low  as  0.4%  they  may  not  dissolve.  Usually  0.45%  is  a  convenient  strength 
in  which  to  try  the  test.  In  contrast  to  the  effects  of  lead,  mercury  or  phos- 
phorus, which  also  affect  the  blood  corpuscles,  most  toxic,  debilitated  or  anemic 
states  cause  a  lessened  resistance  in  the  red  corpuscles.  To  make  this  test  the 
patient  must  not  be  plainly  suffering  from  signs  of  intoxication  from  alcohol, 
benzine,  or  benzol. 

(1).  By  means  of  a  glass  pipette,  marked  at  point  where  one  drop  of  blood 
comes,  place  a  drop  of  fresh  blood  in  5  cc.  of  a  0.5%  NaCl  solution  contained  in 
a  centrifuge  tube.  Shake  gently  for  two  minutes,  then  add  5  cc.  of  1.5%  NaCl, 
and  centrifuge  quickly  for  a  moment.  The  fluid  above  the  compact  mass 
of  corpuscles  in  the  bottom  of  the  centrifuge  tube  will  be  practically  colorless 
if  the  blood  corpuscles  are  normal,  or  if  they  have  been  rendered  hyper-resistant 
by  the  acute  toxic  effects  of  lead. 

(2).  To  a  second  centrifuge  tube  containing  5  cc.  of  a  0.45%  NaCl  solu- 
tion add  another  fresh  drop  of  blood.  Proceed  as  above.     (Both  performances 


387 

may  be  done  at  the  same  time).  In  this  tube  normal  blood  will  show  a  distinct 
hemolysis  (reddening  of  the  supernatant  fluid  after  centrifuging),  bat  in  lead 
intoxication  the  solution  remains  clear,  showing  that  the  corpuscles  are  resistant 
to  the  hemolytic  action  of  the  hypotonic  salt  solution. 

After  a  little  practice  the  whole  test  requires  less  than  three  minues,  and, 
as  explained,  only  two  drops  of  blood.  The  various  solutions  must  all  be  of 
the  same  temperature,  that  of  the  room,  and  an  atomizer  bulb  should  be  used 
to  blow  out  the  drop  of  blood  from  the  collecting  pipette,  since  the  CO2  of  the 
breath  decreases  the  resistance.  The  above  is  a  qualitative  test  only,  but  in  the 
original  method,  definite  quantitative  relationships  can  be  determined,  and  stated 
by  a  resistance  quotient  "R.  Q.,"  which  is  expressible  in  figures,  so  that  the 
amount  of  intoxication  may  be  shown. 

THE  ELECTROLYTIC  TEST  FOR  LEAD  IN  THE  URINE.  — Mate- 
rials and  apparatus  (lead-free)  —  (1)  beaker  of  200  cc.  capacity,  (2)  evaporating 
dish  of  1  litre  capacity,  (3)  cone.  HNO3  c.  p.,  (4)  cone.  HCl  c.  p.,  (5)  NaOH 
sticks,  (6)  Swedish  filter  paper  3  and  6  inches  in  diameter,  (7)  cover-glass,  or 
glass  funnel,  to  be  inverted  over  beaker.  Also  two  5  inch  lengths  of  medium 
sized  platinum  wire  for  electrodes.  Platinum  truncated  cones  are  better.  Also 
3  ordinary  dry-cells  connected  in  series,  with  several  feet  of  ordinary  insulated 
bell-wire,  brass  wire-connectors,  a  miniature  rheostat,  a  small  combined  volt- 
ometer  and  ampere-rneter  (the  watch-shape  type  costing  about  $2.00  is  satis- 
factory) and  1  or  2  single-blade  switches  to  facilitate  control  of  current.  Gen- 
erate H2S  gas  by  placing  lumps  of  FeS  in  a  bottle  having  a  glass  delivery  tube 
drawn  out  to  a  point,  adding  half-strength  HCl  whenever  gas  is  wanted.  All 
the  work  should  be  done  inside  of  a  laboratory  hood,  to  get  rid  of  odors,  acid 
fumes,  etc.  The  whole  apparatus  can  be  set  up  on  one  small  iron  standard, 
with  a  few  rings  and  clamps.  The  platinum  electrodes  are  coiled  up  in  the 
form  of  spirals,  and  each  connected  to  a  respective  wire  from  the  batteries. 
The  electrodes  are  let  down  inside  of  the  beaker,  so  as  to  be  near  the  bottom, 
and  not  closer  than  >^  inch  from  each  other.  Lead  in  the  solution  will  deposit 
on  the  negative  pole  as  Pb02.  To  determine  the  electrode  or  pole,  place  a  weak 
solution  of  NaCl  in  the  beaker  containing  a  drop  or  two  of  phenolphthalein 
indicator;  pink  color  appears  at  the  negative  pole  when  the  current  is  turned  on. 

Procedure.  —  A  24-hour  specimen  of  urine  is  evaporated  down  until  all  is 
contained  in  the  evaporating  dish.  Then  add  carefully  30  cc.  of  pure  nitric  acid, 
bring  to  a  boil,  evaporate  down  to  a  total  of  60  cc.  This  changes  all  lead  present 
into  the  nitrate,  which  is  in  solution,  and  the  carbon  from  the  organic  com- 
pounds appear  as  black  flakes.  Filter  to  remove  carbon.  The  filtrate,  together 
with  the  washings  to  90  cc,  are  now  placed  in  the  beaker  fitted  with  the 
electrodes  and  covered  to  prevent  foreign  matter  accidently  dropping  in.  The 
electrodes  should  have  been  previously  boiled  in  a  mixture  of  HNO3  and  HCl 
to  brighten  them,  then  washed  in  distilled  water.  The  current  is  thrown  on,  and 
adjusted  by  means  of  the  rheostat,  so  that  about  2  volts  is  read  on  the  voltometer 
temporarily  attached  at  the  electrodes.  This  shows  the  actual  delivery  current, 
as  there  is  considerable  resistance  in  the  wires  at  the  low  voltage  used.  The 
amperage  will  be  found  to  read  about  4,  but  is  of  variable  quantity.  The  current 
is  continued  through  the  solution  for  8  to  10  hours.  It  is  best  to  immerse  the 
beaker  in  a  water-bath,  kept  at  about  30°  to  40°C.  by  means  of  an  electric  lamp, 
as  the  current  action  is  better. 

Qualitative  Determination.  —  At  the  end  of  the  period,  throw  off  the 
current,  remove  the  electrodes,  and  any  lead  present  will  be  shown  by  a  black 


388 

or  brown  discoloration  on  the  negative  electrode.  To  further  prove  the  pres- 
ence of  lead,  the  electrode  is  boiled  in  a  test-tube  in  2  or  3  cc.  of  aqua  regia, 
until  it  has  brightened.  The  electrode  is  then  removed,  the  solution  neutralized 
with  NaOH,  and  tested  to  prove  lead  by  the  usual  qualitative  tests.  The  most 
delicate  of  these  is  that  of  passing  a  stream,  of  H2S  bubbles  through  the  neu- 
tral, or  slightly  acid  solution,  and  obtaining  the  brown  or  black  discoloration  due 
to  lead  sulphide. 

The  method  is  very  delicate,  making  it  possible  to  show  as  little  as  1  part 
of  lead  per  million,  in  the  original  24-hour  specimen  of  urine.  Quantitative 
estimations  may  be  made  by  weighing  the  electrode  before  and  after  the  ex- 
periment, or  by  comparing  the  hue  of  the  lead  sulphide  discoloration  in  the 
test  above  mentioned  with  a  known  amount  of  lead  nitrate  precipitated  by  H2S 
gas  in  another  test-tube.  From  0.032  to  0.16  mgm.  of  lead  have  beeivfound  by 
the  above  method.  The  method  is  much  more  delicate  than  the  magnesium 
wire  test  of  Hill.  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  an  acute  case  of  lead  poisoning 
may  show  no  lead  in  either  urine  or  feces,  since  all  may  be  withheld  in  the 
system,  and  none  eliminated.  This  is  more  likely  to  be  so  with  the  urine  than 
the  feces. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

(1)  M.  Paul  — Cited  from  Blyth's  "Poisons,  Their  Eflfects  and  Detection," 
4th  Ed.,  1906,  p.  629. 

(2)  Liebermann— L.  v.  —  Deut.  Med.  Woch.,  1912,  XXXVIII,  No.  10.  Also 
Schaffer,  E.,  ditto,  No.  40,  and  Orban,  R.,  ditto.  No.  44. 

(3)  Blyth  — .y.  J/.,  p.  636. 

(4)  "Hygiene  of  the  Painters'  Trade."  —  U.  S.  Labor  Bulletin,  Whole  No. 
120,  May,  1913,  p.  51-58. 

(5)  Special  Report  of  Statistician  of  Local  No.  194,  Brotherhood  of  Painters, 
Decorators  and  Paperhangers,  Chicago,  1913. 

(6)  Johnson-Lavis,  H.  G.,— Brit.  Med.  Jour.,  No.  2663,  p.  72,  Jan.  13,  1912. 

(7)  Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Assoc  — Vol.  LXII,  No.  7,  p.  525,  Feb.  14,  1914. 

(8)  From  "Occupational  Diseases,"  E.  E.  Pratt,  in  "Preliminary  Report  of  the 
Factory  Investigating  Commission,"  New  York,  Vol.  I,  1912,  p.  387.  There 
are  several  other  excellent  tables  of  similar  sort  in  this  volume  for  other 
industries. 


THE   STANDARDIZATION   OF   A    METHOD   FOR   THE   DETECTION 
OF  LEAD  IN  URINE.* 


Chas.  R.  Parkinson^  M.  A., 
Department  of  Chemistry,  Ohio  State  University. 


The  object  of  this  research  has  been  to  develop  and  standardize 
a  method  that  could  be  employed  conveniently  by"  a  physician  to  deter- 
mine lead  in  the  urine.  It  may  be  said,  in  brief,  that  the  electrolytic 
test  (this  is  the  method  described  by  Dr.  E.  R.  Hayhurst,  in  the  pre- 

*  Abstracted  from  Article  in  Monthly  Bulletin,  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health, 
October,  1914. 


3^9 

ceding  article)  requires  very  exact  conditions  and  considerable  experi- 
ence. Furthermore,  it  is  not  as  delicate  as  the  test  embodying  the 
precipitation  of  lead  as  the  sulfide. 

Procedure  One. —  After  the  sample  of  urine  has  been  evaporated 
to  about  40  c.  c,  add  20  gms.  of  potassium  chlorate  and  10  c.  c.  of 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid.  Boil :  add  hydrochloric  acid  in  10  c.  c. 
portions  until  the  odor  of  escaping  chlorine  can  no  longe  be  detected. 
If  the  solution  is  water-clear,  all  organic  matter  has  been  destroyed. 
If  it  is  colored  brown  or  yellow,  the  above  procedure  should  be  re- 
peated. After  all  organic  matter  is  destroyed,  test  for  lead  in  accord- 
ance with  directions  which  follow  later.  Procedure  Two.  —  Evaporate 
the  sample  to  a  volume  of  about  20  c.  c.  Add  20  c.  c  .of  strong  nitric 
acid  (sp.  gr.  1.42).  Evaporate  to  10  c.  c.  keeping  the  material  washed 
down  from  the  sides  of  the  dish.  Flakes  of  carbon  will  forrn  and  tend 
to  persist  if  this  is  not  observed.  Add  20  c.  c.  of  water.  If  the  solution 
is  water-clear  the  destruction  of  organic  matter  may  be  regarded  as 
complete.  If  the  flakes  of  carbon  are  present,  or  if  the  solution  is  a 
yellow  color,  transfer  it  to  a  small  evaporating  dish  and  evaporate  until 
the  residue  begins  to  char  or  spatter.  Mix  in  5  gms.  of  sodium  car- 
bonate and  heat  until  the  ash  is.  pure  white.  All  organic  matter  is  thus 
destroyed. 

In  any  case,  after  the  organic  matter  has  been  destroyed,  make 
the  solution  alkaline  to  litmus  by  adding  ammonium  hydroxide.  If 
any  iron  is  present  it  will  appear  as  a  brown  flocculent  precipitate.  If 
copper  is  present  the  solution  will  assume  a  bluish  hue.  If  iron  is 
present  acidify  the  solution  with  HCl.  If  copper  is  present  add  KCNf 
to  the  alkaline  solution  till  the  blue  color  disappears.  If  iron  and 
copper  are  both  present  add  0.5  grams  tartaric  acid,  make  alkaline  and 
add  KCN  till  the  blue  color  disapears.  (The  tartaric  acid  should 
be  examined  for  lead.)  If  the  test  for  lead  is  to  be  made  in  acid  solu- 
tion, add  5  c.  c.  of  a  saturated  solution  of  H2S  in  water,  or  allow  the 
gas  to  bubble  through  the  solution.  If  the  test  is  to  be  made  in  alka- 
line solution,  instead  of  HgS  in  water,  a  solution  of  a  soluble  sulfide, 
preferably  sodium  sulfide,  NaoS,  may  be  used ;  —  this  does  away  with 
having  to  generate  HoS  gas.  (Ammonium  sulfide  is  not  as  desirable 
because  of  its  strong  yellow  color.)  The  darkening  produced  is  prac- 
tically proportional  to  the  quantity  of  lead  present.  In  some  cases 
where  a  very  small  amount  of  lead  is  present  a  brownish  color  is  pro- 
duced.    In  order  to  confirm  this  as  beingf  due  to  lead  the  following' 


t  Great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  add  potassium  cyanide  to  a  solution  which 
reacts  acid  to  Htmus  paper,  because  of  the  generation  of  dangerous  hydrocyanic 
acid  fumes. 


390 

further  test  may  be  employed.  Boil  out  all  excess  of  hydrogen  sul- 
fide, add  hydrog-en  peroxide,  full  strength  U.  S.  P.,  and  let  stand.  If 
the  dark  color  disappears,  due  to  the  oxidation  of  lead  sulfide  to  lead 
sulfate  (which  remains  soluble  in  the  quantities  found  here),  it  sig- 
nifies that  the  darkening  was  due  to  lead  in  the  form  of  sulfide.  The 
action  of  hydrogen  peroxide  on  other  black  sulfides,  as  the  sulfide  of 
copper,  mercury,  bismuth,  nickel,  cobalt  and  iron,  was  investigated 
and  in  no  case  is  a  similar  reaction  observed.  Mercuric  sulfide  is 
unattacked,  copper,  nickel,  cobalt  and  iron  give  colored  solutions.  Bis- 
muth yields  a  white  percipitate,  due  to  the  formation  of  basic  salts. 

In  view  of  the  preceding  work  the  following  procedure  is  recom- 
mended for  the  examination  of  urine  for  traces  of  lead: 

(i).  Evaporate  at  least  i,ooo  c.  c.  of  the  suspected  urine  down 
to  about  20  c.  c. 

•    (2).     The  method   for   the   destruction   of   organic  matter   with 
nitric  acid  is  recommended  (Procedure  Two). 

{3).  After  organic  matter  has  been  destroyed  dissolve  in  HCl 
and  make  alkaline  with  ammonium  hydroxide. 

(4) .  If  copper  or  iron  or  both  are  present  make  the  appropriate 
additions  of  KCN  and  tartaric  acid. 

(5).  Dilute  to  100  cc.  and  divide  into  two  parts,  use  one  for  com- 
parison and  in  the  other  precipitate  the  lead  with  a  solution  of  HgS 
gas  or  with  sodium  sulfide,  10%  solution. 

(6).  Shake  and  let  stand.  If  a  black  or  brown  color  is  observed 
by  looking  down  on  the  end  of  the  tube,  lead  is  possibly  the  cause. 

(7).  To  confirm  lead,  boil  out  the  excess  of  H2S  (if  H.S  was 
used  to  precipitate  the  lead),  cool  and  add  10  c.  c.  of  HoO,  (full 
strength,  U.  S.  P.),  shake  and  let  stand  10  minutes.  If  the  black  color 
disappears,  the  color  was  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence  of  lead  sul- 
fide, which  proves  the  presence  of  lead  in  the  sample  tested. 

The  time  required  for  the  detection  of  lead  by  this  method  will 
not  exceed  3^  to  4  hours  including  the  time  for  evaporating  the  urine, 
which  may  be  left  to  an  assistant.  The  actual  chemical  tests  require 
less  than  one-half  hour.  It  does  not  require  the  undivided  attention 
of  the  operator  and  several  tests  can  be  run  at  the  same  time. 

Apparatus  Necessary. 

]     Evaporating  dish  —  1,000  cc.  capacity. 

1     Evaporating  dish  —  50-75  cc.  capacity.     Dishes  glazed  with  a  lead-glaze 
should  not  be  used.     (Royal  Bohemia  virare  is  recommended.) 


391 

2-4     Nessler  tubes  or  test-tubes  of  uniform  size  and  color. 
1     Erlenmeyer  flash. 

A  white  background  to  compare  colors  over. 

Ring-stand,  rings,  Bunsen  burner,  etc.     Keep  clean  so  as  not  to  drop  iron 
rust  into  solutions. 

Reagents  Necessary. 

(a)  To  destroy  organic  matter: 

(Procedure    One) — Hj-drochloric   acid    (Sp.    gr.    1.19).      Potassium 

chlorate. 
(Procedure  Two) — Xitric  acid    (Sp.  gr.  1.42). 

(b)  To  remove  iron  or  copper  occurring  as  impurities: 
Ammonium  hydroxide  (weak). 

Litmus  paper. 
Potassium  cyanide. 
Tartaric  acid. 

(c)  Test  Solutions: 

Hydrogen  sulfide  or  sodium  sulfide  solution  10%  (filter  if  necessary). 
Hydrogen  peroxide,  U.  S.  P. 

The  impurities  apt  to  be  introduced  through  the  reagents  which . 
have  to  be  considered  here  are  iron  in  the  potassium  chlorate.  A  blank 
test  for  lead  should  be  run  on  all  reagents,  especially  the  potassium 
chlorate  and  for  the  control  of  all  operations.  This  can  be  done  very 
conveniently  by  running  a  sample  of  lead-free  water  along  with  the 
sample  of  suspected  urine,  adding  the  same  reagents  and  performing 
the  same  manipulations.  This  solution  is  also  very  useful  as  a  blank 
for  comparison. 

Results  of  Urine  Analyses. 

Nine  samples  of  urine  from  5  patients  suffering  with  lead  pois- 
oning were  examined  for  traces  of  lead.- — Two  of  these  samples  came 
from  Cleveland  and  7  from  Cincinnati..  The  collecting  bottles  were 
found  to  yield  no  detectable  amount  of  lead.  In  the  examination  of 
8  samples,  the  organic  matter  of  the  urine  was  destroyed  by  treating 
with  nitric  acid  and  igniting  with  sodium  carbonate.  The  organic 
matter  of  the  remaining  sample  was  destroyed  by  treating  with  sul- 
furic acid  and  potassium  bisulfate.  The  destruction  with  nitric  acid 
was  a  little  more  convenient  and  required  less  time. 

The  result  of  the  analyses  are  given  in  the  following  table: 


392 


1 
H 

Be'" 

o 

1—1 

05 

0, 

c 

CO 

oxi 

lOU 

cirn 

^^-^ 

u  O 

C 

u. 

aj 

.-H      V^ 

s 

0. 

»-.    g    (U 

U    V 

^      Ti 

•a 

a,<  " 

g'S 

C3 

^^ 

^ 

0 

< 

cr 

Q 

o 

< 

J 

1200  cc 

1. 

Cincinnati 

Tulv 

21 

HN03  

Yes 

0.5  mgms. 

800  cc 

2. 

Cincinnati.  . . . 

Tulv 

25 

HX03 

Yes 

0.0      " 

900  cc 

3. 

Cincinnati.  . . . 

f\Ug. 

5 

HN03 

H.S04  & 

Yes 

0.0      " 

600  cc 

4. 

Cincinnati. . . . 

Aug. 

7 

KHS04  .... 

Yes 

0.0      " 

900  cc 

5. 

Cincinnati 

Aug. 

9 

HN03   

Yes 

0.1—  " 

1100  cc 

6. 

Cleveland 

Aug. 

6 

HNO,    

Yes 

0.2      " 

400  cc 

7. 

Cleveland  .... 

Aug. 

6 

HNO,    

Yes 

0.2      " 

800  cc 

8. 

Cincinnati 

Sept. 

3-4 

HNO,  

Yes 

0.0      " 

300  cc 

9. 

Cincinnati. . . . 

Sept. 

5-6 

HNO3  

Yes 

0.0      " 

Samples  1  and  2  were  from  the  same  patient,  kiln  room  laborer  in  white  lead 
works. 

Samples  3,  4  and  5  were  from  the  same  patient,  kiln  room  laborer  in  white 
lead  works. 

Sample  6,  laborer  loading  box  cars ;  10  months  previously  "worked  in  a  lead 
shop  for  a  chemical  company. 

Sample  7,  laborer  in  automobile  factor}-;  sandpapered  old  auto-bodies  to  re- 
move paint.  ' 

Samples  8  and  9  were  from  the  same  patient,  kiln  room  laborer  for  one  month, 
and  just  taken  sick. 

In  conclusion,  I  wish  to  thaiik  Dr.  Wm.  L.  Evans,  of  the  De- 
partment of  Chemistry  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  for  valuable  sug- 
gestions and  advice  made  during  the  progress  of  the  work  which  was 
done  at  the  request  of  Dr.  E.  R.  Hayhurst. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

Fairchild,  J.   D.     Electrolytic   Determination   of   Lead,   New   features   in,   Jour. 

Met.  &  Chem.  Eng.,  V.  3,  P.  902. 
Wociechowski,    B.     Electrolytic   Determination    of    Lead,    Met.    &    Chem.    Eng., 

V.  10,  P.  108. 
List,  E.     Electrolytic  Determination  of  Lead,  Met.  &  Chem.  Eng.,  V.  10,  P.  135. 
Benner.     Electrolytic  Determination  of  Lead,  Jour.  Met.  &  Eng.  Chem.,  V.  2, 

P.  348. 
Knapp,   A.  W.     Estimation   of   Lead   in   Beer,   Jour.   Soc.    Chem.   Met.,   V.   30, 

P.  165. 
Harcourt,  A.  G.  V.     Method  for  Approximate  Estimate  of  Lead,  Jour.  Chem. 

Soc,  V.  97,  P.  841. 
Woudstra,   H.   W.    Uber   die   Genauigkeit    Colorimetrischer   Bleibestimmungen. 

Zeitsch.  Anorg.  Chem.,  V.  58,  P.  168-9. 
Vortman,    G.     Zur.    Electrolytischen    Bestimmung   des    Bleis    Annallen,   V.   351, 

P.  283. 
Biol.  Zeitschrift  ,V.  81.  P.  63.     (On  the  Electrolytic  Detection  of  Lead.) 


393 

Large  placards  of  the  form  below  will  be  supplied  to  manufac- 
turers upon  request. 

NOTICE. 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO  EMPLOYES. 
How  TO  Prevent  Lead  Poisoning. 

(1)  All  workers  exposed  to  lead  dusts,  lead  fumes,  lead  solutions  and  lead  com- 
pounds are  liable  to  poisoning.  These  poisons  get  into  the  body  through 
the  nose  while  breathing,  or  through  the  mouth  when  chewing,  or  swallow- 
ing, or  wetting  the  lips. 

(2)  Do  all  you  can  to  keep  down  dust.  When  sweeping  or  cleaning,  always 
dampen  with  water,  oil  or  wet  sawdust.  Where  dust  can  not  be  kept  down, 
you  must  wear  a  respirator.    This  must  be  cleaned  out  at  least  once  a  day. 

(3)  Eat  breakfast  before  going  to  work.  Drink  milk  at  meals,  and  if  possible 
once  between  meals.  Do  not  eat  meals  in  workroom.  Leave  work-room 
at  meal  times. 

(4)  Keep  dirty  fingers  out  of  your  mouth,  and  off  of  your  food,  and  whatever 
goes  into  your  mouth.  Wash  hands,  arms  and  face  with  warm  water  and 
soap  before  eating,  going  to  the  toilet,  or  quitting  the  work-room.  Clean 
your  lips  and  rinse  out  your  mouth  before  eating  or  drinking. 

(5)  A  mustache,  if  worn,  must  be  kept  short.  Do  not  wear  a  beard.  Keep 
fingernails  clean  and  cut  short,  also  loose  skin  about  the  nails  or  hands. 

(6)  Do  not  chew  tobacco  or  gum  while  at  work.  Avoid  the  use  of  intoxicants 
in  any  form,  as  they  promote  lead  poisoning. 

(7)  Take  a  full  bath  with  warm  water  and  soap  at  least  twice  a  week. 

(8)  You  must  wear  overalls  and  jumpers  while  at  work.  Wear  a  cap  if  ex- 
posed to  dust  or  fumes.  Do  not  wear  your  working  clothes  outside  of  the 
working  place. 

(9)  Keep  your  bowels  moving  if  possible  once  a  day.  Report  to  your  foreman 
if  you  notice  (1)  loss  of  appetite,  (2)  poor  sleep,  (3)  indigestion,  (4) 
continual  constipation,  (5)  vomiting,  (6)  pains  in  stomach,  (7)  dizziness, 
(8)  continual  headache,  or  (9)  weakness  in  arms,  limbs  or  body. 

Note:  Lead  poisoning  brings  on  Paralysis  of  the  wrists  and  arms,  hardens 
the  arteries,  causes  chronic  diseases,  and  hastens  old  age  and  death.  WORK- 
MAN PROTECT  YOURSELF.  Your  employer  and  the  Board  of  Health 
cannot  do  all  for  you.    OBSERVE  THE  ABOVE  PRECAUTIONS. 

OHIO  STATE  BOARD  OF  HEALTH, 

Dr.  E.  F.  McCampbell, 
Columbus,  Ohio.  Secretary  and  Executive  Officer. 

instructions  to  employes  in  dusty  trades. 

Dangers  of  Dust. 
1.     Don't  breathe  dust  of  any  kind  —  it  causes  colds,  consumption  and  pneu- 


394 

2.  Don't  sweep  during  work  hours  —  it  spreads  germs  of  all  kinds. 

3.  Don't  work  in  dusty  air.     Stop  the  dust  or  wear  a  dust  protector  over  your 
mouth  and  nose. 

4.  Dust  breathed  into  your  lungs  is  never  breathed  out  again. 

5.  If  you  breathe  dust  you  are  bound  to  cough. 

6.  Coughing  or  spitting  is  nature's  warning  that  your  lungs  are  in  danger. 

7.  If  you  hem  or  cough  every  day  see  a  doctor  at  once. 


FOUR  CASES  OF  SUDDEN  DEATH  IN  A  SILO. 


E.  R.  Hayhurst,  M.  D., 
Director,  Division  of  Occupational  Diseases,  Ohio  State  Board  of  Health, 

AND 

Ernest  Scott^  M.  D., 
Professor  of  Pathology,  Ohio  State  University,  College  of  Medicine 

COLUMBUS^    OHIO. 


(Reprinted   from   The  Journal  of  the  American   Medical   Association   Oct.   31, 
1914,  Vol.  LXIII,  pp.  1570-1572.) 

In  view  of  the  constantly  increasing  importance  of  the  silo  for  the 
preservation  of  fodder  on  the  American  farm,  it  seems  proper  to  draw  wide- 
spread attention  to  the  danger  of  fatal  asphyxia  which  may  occur  to  workers 
in  filling  and  emptying  silos.  There  are  no  reported  cases  on  record  of  fatali- 
ties under  such  circumstances  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn  after  a 
careful  search  of  the  literature.  Agricultural  bulletins^  warn  of  the  danger  of 
carbon  dioxid  asphyxia  unless  certain'  precautions  are  taken.  A  sudden  death 
here  and  there  has  unquestionably  been  laid  to  heart  failure,  apoplexy  and 
the  like. 

Since  the  first  American  silo  was  built  by  Dr.  Manly  Miles',  in  1875,  the 
principle  'has  undergone  widespread  development  throughout  the  country  so 
that  the  dangers  herein  cited  are  liable  to  beset  a  large  number  of  persons. 
The  danger  from  the  accumulation  of  heavy  gases  in  t)he  old  type  of  pit-silos 
dug  in  the  ground  can  be  easily  appreciated,  but  the  instances  in  question 
took  place  in  a  modern  upground  metal  silo,  built  about  40  feet  high,  and  free 
from  surroundings  which  might  interfere  with  ventilation. 

At  the  Athens  (Ohio)  State  Hospital,  at  about  7  o'clock  on  the  morn- 
ing of  September  19,  1914,  four  members  of  a  squad  of  six  men  ascended  the 
ladder  on  the  outside  of  the  silo  in  question  to  an  open  door  about  12  feet 
from  the  top,  and  jumped  in,  one  after  the  other,  on  the  silage,  the  level  of 
wihioh  was  about  6  feet  below  the  doorway.     Within  five  minutes,  as  reported. 


^  Babcock,  S.  M.,  and  Russell,  H.  L. :  Causes  Operative  in  the  Production 
of  Silage,  17th  Ann.  Rep.,  Wisconsin  Agric.  Expt.  Sta.,  1900,  p.  131.  Crisp,  H. 
L.,  and  Patterson,  H.  J. :  Silos  and  Silage  in  Maryland,  Bull.  129,  Maryland 
Agric.  Expt.  Sta.,  July  1908,  p.  10.  Erf,  Oscar :  The  Silo  for  the  Dairy,  Bull. 
Agric.  Coll.,  Farmers'  Reading  Course,  Vol.  2,  No.  4,  Ohio  State  Univ.,  p.  3. 

"Year  Book,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric,  1899,  p.  616. 


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the  next  two  men  who  ascended  shouted  down  that  the  first  four  looked  as 
though  they  were  dead.  A  large  force  of  workers  who  were  at  hand  im- 
mediately ascended  the  silo,  and  opening  a  lower  door  which  was  just  above 
the  level  of  the  silage,  'hurriedly  removed  the  unconscious  forms,  and,  in  spite 
of  the  immediate  arrival  of  four  or  five  physicians  from  the  institution,  all 
attempts  at  resuscitation  failed. 

The  unfortunate  ones,  one  of  whom  was  31  years  old,  and  the  others 
56,  56  and  67,  were  "trusties"  at  the  institution,  and  all  had  been  engaged  for 
several  years  on  the  institutional  farm,,  and  had  helped  in  filling  silos  for  the 
past  two  or  three  years.  During  the  two  weeks  previous  they  had  helped  to 
fill  two  large  wooden  silos  nearby,  and  during  the  three  days  previous  had 
helped  with  the  filling  of  the  metal  silo  in  question.  Their  work  was  to  tramp 
down  the  ensilage  as  it  was  delivered  from  the  blowpipe.  On  this  morning 
the  machine  had  not  yet  begun  operations,  and  apparently  the  men  sat  down 
or  lay  down  on  the  silage  to  wait. 

To  expedite  the  removal  of  the  victims  they  had  to  be  let  down  head 
first  within  the  3^-foot  chute  which  surrounds  the  ladder.  In  this  manner 
they  were  passed  down  from  helper  to  helper  to  the  brickpaved  dairy-yard 
below.  All  were  cyanotic,  and  respiratory  movements  had  ceased,  but  it  was 
thought  that  in  three  tihe  heart  action  was  still  present  when  resuscitation 
efforts  began.  In  a  few  minutes,  however,  all  became  pallid,  and  in  spite  of 
an  hour's  efforts  on  each  one  with  artificial  respiration  and  stimulants  none 
revived. 

On  the  evening  of  the  same  day  we  arrived  at  the  institution  and  necrop- 
sies were  performed  on  two  of  the  bodies  with  significant  anatomic  findings 
(which  were  exactly  similar  in  both  cases)  as  follows :  A  black  fluid  condi- 
tion of  the  blood  which  flowed  persistently  from  practically  all  places  of  in- 
cision, there  being  an  entire  absence  of  clots ;  marked  cyanosis  of  the  lungs 
and  mucous  membranes  of  the  tracheae  and  bronchi.  The  same  was  true  of 
the  livers  and  kidneys.  There  was  also  marked  capillary  injection  of  the 
brains  and  intestines.  Aside  from  these  findings  tlie  tissues  of  the  bodies 
showed  no  recent  changes  worthy  of  comment;  especially  there  were  no  patho- 
logic conditions  of  the  hearts  or  vessels  to  be  noted. 

The  next  morning  about  7  o'clock  we  visited  the  silo  in  question,  where 
conditions  had  been  allowed  to  remain  as  on  the  previous  morning,  except 
that  before  orders  could  be  issued  a  couple  of  feet  more  of  silage  had  been 
added.  This  had  apparently  sunk  1  foot  during  the  night,  leaving  about  5 
feet  up  to  the  bottom  of  the  door  in  question.  However,  according  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  gases  are  generated  (see  below),  about  10  or  12  feet 
should  have  been  added,  more  nearly  to  reproduce  the  amount  of  gas  to  which 
the  workmen  had  undoubtedly  been  subjected.  The  weather  on  the  two  days 
was  practically  unchanged,  being  slightly  cool  at  night  and  warm  during  the 
day.  The  silage  consisted  of  fresh,  rather  finely  cut,  immature  corn.  Light 
■within  the  silo  was  good,  owing  to  open  doorways  above  and  in  the  roof. 
The  temperature  seemed  about  10  F.  higher  than  that  of  the  atmosphere  with- 
out. A  more  peaceful  and  inviting  scene  could  not  be  imagined  than  the  warm,, 
pleasant  smelling  green  silage  within.  With  a  few  moments  to  spare,  the  most 
natural  thing  for  workmen  to  do  would  be  to  sit  down  or  lie  down  on  the 
silage. 

We  dropped  a  guinea-pig  within,  which,  in  thirty  seconds,  toppled  over 
unconscious  after  a  brief  exhibit  of  respiratory  difficulty.     A  rabbit  was  next 


397 

dropped  down  on  the  silage.  It  took  a  few  steps,  showed  some  dyspnea  and 
dropped  over  on  its  side  unconscious  at  the  end  of  sixty  seconds.  Next  a 
large,  slender  collie  dog  was  lowered  down  and  in  just  two  and  three-quarter 
minutes  it  likewise  fell  over  unconscious.  The  oncome  of  unconsciousness  in 
all  cases  was  very  sudden.  The  animals,  after  unconsciousness,  rapidly  turned 
bluish  about  the  nose,  lips,  tongue  (and  ears  in  the  case  of  the  rabbit).  The 
guinea-pig  was  dead  in  ten  minutes,  the  rabbit  at  the  end  of  forty-two  minutes, 
while  the  dog  was  removed  at  the  end  of  thirty-three  minutes,  when  abdom- 
inal and  chest  movements  had  ceased,  although  drawing  back  of  the  corners 
of  the  cheeks  was  still  present.  Within  a  few  minutes  on  the  outside,  the  dog, 
which  had  been  let  down  by  its  tail,  showed  signs  of  reviving;  at  the  end  of 
six  minutes  it  appeared  partly  conscious,  and  thereafter  rapidly  recovered 
without  any  efforts  at  resuscitation  having  been  tried.  Necropsies  on  the 
guinea-pig  and  rabbit  revealed  conditions  entirely  similar  to  those  described 
above  in  the  cases  of  the  human  subjects. 

Next  a  bunch  of  matches,  lowered  on  a  pitchfork  tine,  snuffed  out  at  a 
level  of  about  18  inches  above  the  silage.  A  lantern  behaved  similarly,  and  the 
level  of  the  gas  could  be  estimated  within  half  an  inch  by  means  of  the 
effect  on  the  lantern  flame.  At  this  point  a  gallon  bottle  of  water  was  lowered, 
inverted,  and  a  sample  of  the  gas  thus  collected. 

Another  half-mongrel  dog  of  medium  size  was  dropped  in,  but  unlike  the 
collie,  which  sniffed  around  over  the  surface  of  the  silage,  this  dog  kept  its 
nose  well  elevated  and  showed  very  few  symptoms.  At  this  point  one  of  the 
investigators  jumped  in  and  lowered  his  head  to  the  top  of  the  silage.  A 
most  startling,  rather  pungent,  warm  and  slightly  alcoholic  smelling  gas  caused 
the  investigator  to  retreat  hastily  to  the  open  door  above.  The  lower  door 
(just  above  the  silage)  was  then  opened,  through  which  the  second  investigator 
detected  the  same  gaseous  odor,  which  irritated  the  mucuous  membrances  and 
the  throat  considerably,  and  the  effects  of  which  could  be  felt  for  fifteen  or 
twenty  minutes  afterward.  There  was  no  odor  suggestive  of  bitter  almonds, 
garlic  or  rotten  eggs  (hydrocyanic  acid,  hydrogen  arsenid,  or  hydrogen  sul- 
phid).  A  few  more  experiences  convinced  the  investigators,  however,  that  one 
could  rapidly  become  used  to  the  at-first-unpleasant  effects  of  the  gas,  and 
that  to  wor^ters  customarily  employed  about  silos  it  might  not  be  considered  of 
any  moment. 

Experiments  with  animals  and  lights  were  made  in  the  two  neighboring 
silos,  which  had  been  filled  with  a  riper  and  drier  corn  fodder,  but  all  resulted 
negatively. 

The  analyses  of  the  gases  collected,  which  were  made  by  Prof.  William 
L.  Evans,  of  the  Department  of  Chemistry,  Ohio  State  University,  showed  as 
follows : 

A.     Sample  from  the  silo  in  which  the  deaths  occurred : 

First  Second 

Estimate  Estimate 

Gas.                                    Per  Cent.  Per  Cent.  • 

Carbon   dioxid    3S.0  38.3 

Oxygen    13.5  14.0 

Nitrogen 48.5  47.7 

No  test  could  be  obtained  for  carbon  monoxid,  ammonia,  hydrocyanic 
acid  or  methane. 


398 

B.  Sample  from  one  of  the  neighboring  silos  (filled,  however,  the  week 
before)  : 

First  Second 

'                                                      Estimate  Estimate 

Gas.                                    Per  Cent.  Per  Cent. 

Carbon    dioxid    .20  0'.24 

Oxygen    20.5  20.7 

Nitrogen    79.39  79.06 

Likewise  no  test  could  be  obtained  for  ammonia,  hydrocyanic  acid  or 
methane.     (Nitrogen  was   determined  by  differences  in  both  cases). 

According  to  Rambousek,^  10  per  cent,  of  carbon  dioxid  in  the  air  causes 
asphyxia,  which  is  usually  sudden. 

Some  peculiar  features  obain  in  silos..  The  initial  heating  of  silage  is 
described*  as  due  to  the  direct  respiration  of  plant  cells,  increased  by  the 
cutting  of  plant  tissues,  by  intramolecular  respiration  of  ensiled  material  (  the 
cfiief  factor),  while  (in  a  tight  silo  such  as  this  was)  the  factor  of  bacterial 
and  mold  action  is  practically  negligible. 

The  composition^  of  the  air  at  time  of  filling  is  of  course  the  same  as 
the  normal  atmosphere,  but  immediately  after  the  cut  fodder  is  ensiled,  absorp- 
tion of  oxygen  by  the  plant  tissues  begins  and  continues  until  all  of  the  free 
oxygen  in  the  air  spaces  is  consumed  by  the  respiratory  processes  of  the  plant. 
This  direct  absorption  of  oxygen  is  nearly,  but  not  quite,  counterbalanced  by 
the  evolution  of  carbon  dioxid,  as  a  portion  of  the  oxygen  combines  to  form 
other  by-products  An  analysis  of  the  air  even  within  twenty-four  hours  often 
shows  no  free  oxygen.  The  nitrogen  of  the  air  is  unaffected  by  these  plant 
processes. 

Within  a  short  time  gas  begins  to  be  given  off,  and  continues  at  an 
increasing  rate  for  a  day  or  so,  then  gradually  diminishes.  The  gas  so  evolved 
is  largely  CO2,  but  is  mixed  with  the  residual  nitrogen  of  the  contained  air. 
This  CO2  is  the  result  of  intramolecular  rather  than  direct  respiratory  proc- 
esses, and  as  the  oxygen  required  for  this  change  is  derived  from  the  tissues 
of  the  plant,  the  volume  of  gas  in  the  silo  is  increased  by  the  amount  of  GO2 
formed.  The  evolved  CO2  is  therefore  a  measure  of  the  intramolecular  respira- 
tion. The  evolution  of  this  gas  marks  an  actual  and  unavoidable  loss  in  the 
organic  matter  of  silage.  This  source  is  operative  so  long  as  life  exists  in  the 
plant  cells,  but  when  the  cells  die,  gas  from  this  source  is  no  longer  given  off. 

When  the  gases  of  a  silo  are  measured,  either  by  volume  or  by  absorption 
of  the  CO2,  the  production  of  gas  is  found  to  be  very  rapid  for  the  first  few 
days,  and  then  to  diminish  quickly  in  a  manner  somewhat  comparable  to  the 
evolution  of  heat  previously  referred  to.  It  soon  reaches  (two  weeks  or  so), 
a  rate  that  continues  with  slight  fluctuations  for  some  months.  Such  a  rate 
of  gas  evolution  can  only  be  intelligently  interpreted  by  assuming  that  most, 
at  least,  of  the  OO2  evolved  is  the  result  of  processes  inherent  to  the  plant 
cell,  and  not  to  fermentative  action  set  up  by  organisms  which  must  have  de- 
veloped subsequent  to  the  ensiling  of  the   fodder. 


'  Rambousek,  J. :  Industrial  Poisoning,  translated  by  T.  M.  Legge,  1913, 
p.  201. 

*  Babcock,  S.  M.,  and  Russell,  H.  L. :  Causes  Operative  in  the  Production 
of  Silage,  p.  1.30. 


399 

In  fact,  it  is  the  presence"  of  this  carbon  dioxid  gas  which  is  the  prin- 
cipal perserving  agent  in  the  silage.  The  escape  of  this  gas  from  the  silo 
will  immediately  start  decay.  Usually  mold  does  not  affect  more  than  the 
mere  surface  of  the  silage  and  this  acts  as  a  seal  to  prevent  the  air  from 
decaying  the  silage  to  a  greater  depth.  The  amount  of  carbon  dioxid  de- 
veloped°  in  a  silo  filled  with  immature  corn  may  reach  75  per  cent,  of  the  total 
gases  present,  the  chief  remaining  gas  being  the  nitrogen  of  the  air. 

"The  conditions  favorable  for  a  maximum  evolution  of  carbon  dioxid  is 
an  immature  corn  cut  into  fine  pieces  and  placed  in  the  silo  at  intervals"'^(  as 
the  daily  filling  with  nightly  interruptions).  . 

Fatal  asphyxia  from  carbon  dioxid  has  been  reported  under  the  following 
somewhat  similar  conditions :  among  vintners,  distillers,  brewers,  yeast  makers, 
in  the  holds  of  grain  vessels  and  in  peat  pits.  But  a  very  great  danger  exists 
also  in  every  silo  unless  precautions  are  taken.  These  consist  in  keeping  the 
doors  immediately  above  the  level  of  the  silage 'open,  or  in  having  tinhinged 
doors  which  fall  in  as  the  silage  settles  below  them,  while  the  absence  of  a 
roof  (which  is  said  not  to  be  necessary)  would  permit  prevailing  winds  to 
draw  ofif  gases  by  suction  action.  The  gas  can  be  driven  out  easily  by  using 
an  open  umbrella,  'bunch  of  hay,  or  leafy  branch  of  a  tree  to  promote  diffusion. 
When  any  doubt  exists,  the  effects  on  a  lantern  flame  should  be  noted. 

In  case  of  accident,  the  Meltzer  apparatus,  recommended  by  the  Commit- 
tee on  Resuscitation  from  Mine  'Gases,*  would  appear  to  be  the  best  of  the 
mechanical  devices  available.* 

We  desire  to  thank  Dr.  O.  O.  Fordyce,  superintendent  of  the  Athens 
State  Hospital,  his  staff,  and  others  for  their  kindly  efforts  in  facilitating  in- 
vestigations. A  complete  report  of  this  investigation  including  necropsy  find- 
ings is  given  in  the  Monthly  Bulletin  of  the  Ohio  State  Board  of,  Health 
for  October,   1914. 


'Erf,  Oscar:     The  Silo  for  the  Dairy,  pp.  13  and  27. 

'  King,  F.  H. :  Influence  of  Close  Packing  of  Corn  in  the  Silo,  etc.,  18th 
Ann.  Rep.,  Wisconsin  Agric.  Sta.,  1901,  p.  202. 

^Quoted  from  letter  under  date  of  Sept.  30,  1914,  from  R.  H.  Shaw, 
chemist,  Bureau  of  Animal  Husbandry,  Dairy  Division,  Washington,  D.  C. 

*  Technical  Paper  No.  77,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Mines,  August,  1914. 

*  Resuscitation  from  Mine  Gases,  editorial,  The  Journal  A.  M.  A.,  Sept. 
26,  1914,  p.  1117. 


PART  VIII. 

MEASURES   OF   PREVENTION. 

THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  PREVENTION  OF  OCCUPATIONAL 

DISEASES, 


Plainly,  the  prevention  of  occupational  diseases  lies  in  the  elim- 
ination of  health-hazards  from  industry. 

At  once  it  must  be  understood  that  occupational  diseases  are  not 
necessarily  extrinsic  poisonings,  such  as  lead,  benzine,  etc.,  but  are 
just  as  much  the  result  of  intrinsic  poisonings  and  toxins,  which 
have  been  generated  within  the  system  through  fatigue,  inactivity, 
temperature  variations,  dampness  and  disease.  It  is,  however,  well 
to  consider  the  cases  of  extrinsic  poisoning  as  specific  occupational 
diseases,  and  the  cases  of  intrinsic  poisonings  as  non-specific  occu- 
pational diseases,  since  the  health-hazards  which  produce  this  latter 
group  are,  oftentimes,  extant  outside  of  industry,  because  of  various 
moral  delinquencies,  domestic  habits,  etc. ;  fbut  the  moiety  which  in- 
dustry causes  in  these  non-specific  occupational  diseases  should  not 
be  over-looked,  as  is  now  so  commonly  done  and  which  results  in 
charging  all  such  disasters  to  factors  outside  of  industry. 

"In  order  to  improve  the  hygienic  conditions  under  which  people  work, 
and  in  order  to  prevent  the  diseases  of  occupation,  five  fundamental  conditions 
are  essential:  (1)  investigations;  (2)  laws;  (3)  factory  inspection;  (4) 
penalties;  (5)  education.  It  is  self-evident  that  before  anything  may  be  accom- 
plished a  careful  study  must  be  made  of  the  facts.  These  investigations  must 
include  not  only  scientific  studies,  but  also  economic  and  sociological  factors. 
Suitable  laws  are  necessary,  for  it  has  been  found  in  practice  that  the  condi- 
tions cannot  be  corrected  by  an  appeal  to  voluntary  reform.  To  be  eflfective 
the  laws  must  provide  ample  ways  and  means  for  their  energetic  enforcement. 
A  systematic  factory  inspection  is  necessary  in  prder  not  only  to  protect  work- 
people against  the  preventable  diseases  of  occupation  and  to  correct  sanitary 
defects,  but  also  to  enforce  the  laws  concerning  hours  of  occupation,  child 
labor  laws,  and  related  subjects.  These  laws  have  little  force  unless  they  pro- 
vide a  penalty  both  against  the  employer  and  the  employees.  Either  party  to 
the  contract  should  be  held  legally  responsible  in  case  of  violation.  Finally, 
education  directed  to  the  employer,  the  employee,  and  also  to  the  public  at 
large  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  laws  and  maintain  the  standards." — (Rosenau. 
Preventive  Medicine  and  Hygiene,  1913,  Page  915.) 

Principle  I. — If  it  is  hazardous  to  human  lives  to  produce  an 
article  of  human  usefulness,  then  the  cost  of  production  should 
include  the  cost  of  the  conservation  of  health. 

400 


401 

Principle  II. — A  proper  place  to  work,  and  safe  methods  of 
working,  and  some  knowledge  of  the  dangers  to  health  and  life  are 
pre-requisites  to  conducting  any  business,  or  to  working,  no  matter 
whether  one  man  or  a  thousand  are  concerned,  and  whether  the  in- 
dividual is  an  employer  or  an  employe. 

Principle  III. — The  health  of  the  individual  is  an  affair  of  the 
State,  since  his  dependency,  wilful  or  otherwise,  becomes  a  burden 
upon  the  State,  directly  or  indirectly. 

It  seems  at  this  time  impossible  to  prevent  occupational  diseases 
by  specific  legislation;  for,  the  mass  of  statutes  necessary  to  enact  to 
cover  each  particular  process,  and  to  keep  up  with  the  progress  of 
industries  and  processes,  would  seem  practically  incapable  of  ac- 
complishment. On  the  other  hand,  we  believe  that  the  entire  ques- 
tion can  be  handled  "by  means  of  rules  embodying  instructions  and 
explanations  of  reasonable  and  feasible  character,  created  for  all  the 
.industries  of  the  state  by  the  offices  of  the  State  Board  of  Health, 
and  of  such  a  character  that  though  left  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
Industrial  Commission  of  Ohio,  they  will  practically  enforce  them- 
selves through  the  common  acquiescence  of  employers  and  employes, 
and  the  extension  of  the  principles  of  compensation  to  occupational 
diseases. 

The  question  of  how  to  compensate  for  non-specific  occupa- 
tional diseases,  such,  for  instance,  as  tuberculosis  which  may  be  due 
to  several  factors  other  than  work  conditions,  has  been  solved  abroad 
as  follows:  If  the  workman  at  or  before  the  time  of  disablement  was 
employed  in  any  process  mentioned  in  the  schedule  (of  health-haz- 
ardous processes)  and  the  disease  contracted'  is  the  disease  set  op- 
posite to  the  description  of  that  process  (in  the  schedule),  the  disease 
shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  due  to  the  nature  of  that  employment 
unless  the  contrary  is  proved. 

Attention  is  called  to  what  is  known  as  the  Overlock  Tubercu- 
losis Agreement  which  is  in  vogue  in  the  New  England  States  and  has 
been  adopted  by  various  chambers  of  commerce,  manufacturers'  asso- 
ciations, and  individual  establishments.  The  Agreement  provides  a 
simple  method  by  which  this  scourge  of  humanity  can  be  driven  from 
the  'factory  districts  where  it  now  chiefly  flourishes.  In  short,  the 
proposition  is  that  the  manufacturer  or  employer  pay  for  the  sanator- 
ium treatment  of  any  of  his  employes  who  are  so  unfortunate  as  to 
be  stricken  with  this  disease.  In  Massachusetts,  where  the  movement 
began,  the  Rutland  Sanatorium  is  able  to  treat  such  cases  for  $4.00  a 

26    o.  D. 


402 

week.  The  first  manufacturer  to  make  the  agreement  did  so  in  1908, 
in  the  case  of  a  working  girl,  whose  expenses  he  offered  to  pay  at  the 
sanatorium  "for  a  period  of  3  months  or  longer  if  necessary."  It  is 
claimed  that  the  Agreement  now  embraces  more  than  1,200  mercantile 
and  manufacturing  establishments,  employing  approximately  2,000,000 
people  in  the  New  England  States,  where  it  is  driving  this  plague 
from  industry.  Before  it  could  be  fully  adopted  in  Ohio,  more  sana 
toriums  must  be  provided.  As  stated  before,  there  are  some  35,000 
cases  of  the  disease  in  the  state.  How  many  of  these  are  in  industry 
it  is  impossible  to  estimate. 

CORRECTIVE  MEASURES  RECOMMENDED. 

Under  each  general  process  and  special  process  described  in  Part 
V.  are  given  specific  suggestions  to  meet  the  hazardous  conditions 
described.    We  will  conclude  by  giving  some  general  statements. 

The  corrective  measures  to  be  recommended  fall  under  three 
heads:  (i)  Information,  education  and  publicity,  (2)  correlation  of 
industrial  health-hazards  and  occupational  diseases,  and  (3)  co-opera- 
tive legislation. 

(i)  The  supplying  of  information  to  the  employers  of  labor  in 
different  industries  and  trade  processes  upon  the  forms  of  health- 
hazards  which  have  been  found  to  exist  in  such  industries  and  pro- 
cesses, and  the  types  of  occupational  diseases  and  disabilities,  the 
prevalence  of  tuberculosis  and  other  chronic  diseases — all  of  th£se  are 
important  functions  of  the  state  and  local  health  body,  and  are  essen- 
tial in  the  elimination  of  much  preventable  disease.  Along  with  such 
information  should  be  supplied  an  outline  of  corrective  measures 
which  are  based  upon  reasonableness,  practicability  and  economy,  and 
which  have  been  culled  from  various  sources  everywhere.  The 
mechanical  problems  of  various  installations  and  devices  are,  of  course, 
outside  of  the  field  of  the  health  officer. 

The  carrying  home  to  the  workers  themselves  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  hygiene  is  very  important.  Our  investigation  has  shown 
many  instances  of  entirely  wrong  conceptions  of  hygiene  which  seri- 
ous-minded workers  have  advocated.  It  is  usually  possible  to  apply 
these  principles  of  hygiene  directly  to  the  industries  and  trade 
processes  in  question.  There  is  no  question  that  much  of  'the 
preventable  disease  rate  among  occupied  persons,  perhaps  over  half 
of  it,  is  due  to  the  ignorance  or  misinformation,  or  sheer  non-interest- 
edness  of  the  workers  themselves.  For  poisonous  trades  and  the 
principal  dusty  occupations,  as  well  as  most  of  the  dozen  health- 
hazards  commonly  met  with,  placards  of  instructions  on  the  avoidance 


403 

of  such  hazards,  such  as  the  two  simple  forms  given  in  the  preceding 
Part  can  be  posted  up  in  work  quarters,  and  arrangements  made  for 
their  interpretation  into  the  various  foreign  languages,  and  their  read- 
ing at  intervals  as  a  definite  plan  of  the  factory  efficiency.  These 
would  help  considerably.  More  important,  however,  than  these  is  the 
arrangement  for  a  careful  instruction  of  foremen  and  overseers  in 
the  questions  as  evolved  at  each  plant.  This  can  be  arranged  for 
usually  through  the  local  health  department,  which,  if  it  is  not  in  a  posi- 
tion to  devote  time  to  this  itself,  can  recommend  properly  qualified 
persons,  usually  physicians  (but  at  least  persons  skilled  in  hygiene), 
to  give  brief  talks  at  short  meetings,  and  to  co-operate  by  taking 
observations  throughout  the  work  place.  Already,  today,  this  plan  has 
been  extended,  not  only  to  the  skilled,  but  to  the  unskilled  workers  in 
a  number  of  plants  in  the  state,  whereby  once  or  twice  a  month  fifteen 
minutes  or  so  at  noon  time  is  taken  for  a  short  crisp  talk  by  a  prop- 
erly qualified  person  upon  the  questions  of  hygiene  at  hand,  and  the 
problems  which  the  workers  should  meet  to  increase  their  own  effi- 
ciency and  their  own  productiveness. 

The  general  public  itself  is,  as  a  rule,  quite  indefinitely  informed 
on  the  principles  of  "preventive  medicine"  and  hygiene,  including 
industrial  hygiene.  As  practically  all  adults  have  to  work,  it  is  impor- 
tant that  each  individual  should  become  acquainted  with  the  health- 
hazards  of  his  particular  calling,  for  most  of  which  civilization  has 
introduced  more  or  less  artificiality,  which  is  not  in  keeping  with  the 
physiological  or  normal  functions  of  the  human  being.  Publicity 
through  health  agents,  public  health  exhibits,  lectures,  etc.,  and  the 
preparedness  of  health  agencies  to  supply  the  information  desired,  are 
the  general  means  of  covering  this  field. 

(2)  There  is  greatly  needed  today  a  real  correlation  of  occupa- 
tional diseases  and  disabilities  with  industrial  malhygiene  by  treat- 
ing agencies  and  institutions,  which  should  adopt  forms  and  means  of 
reporting  these  correlations  to  local  or  state  health  officials.  There 
is  unquestionably  a  great  shortcoming  in  this  direction,  which  is  pro- 
ductive of  enormous  economic  waste.  These  treating  agencies,  many 
of  them  maintained  by  the  public  itself,  or  by  charitable  institutions, 
go  through  their  routine  of  furnishing  aid  and  succor  day  after  day, 
without  themselves  trying  to  connect  up  these  remnants  of  social  delin- 
quencies with  the  causes  which  produced  them,  nor  is  the  information 
which  they  collect  recorded  in  an  available  form  for  utilization  by  cor- 
rective agencies.  To  explain  this  situation  more  fully  as  well  as  to 
emphasize  corrective  measures,  the  following  summary  is  taken  from 
a  recent  article  by  the  director  of  the  survey. 


404 


THE   PREVALENCE  OF  OCCUPATIONAL   FACTORS   IN  DISEASE,   AND 
SUGGESTIONS   FOR  THEIR  ELIMINATION.* 

/  E.  R.  Hayhurst. 

The  purpose  of  this  paper  is,  first,  to  point  out  the  socially  wasteful  practice 
of  administering  daily  to  person  after  person  for  the  same  types  of  morbidity, 
due  to  the  same  causes,  and,  secondly,  to  emphasize  a  much  neglected  sphere  of 
etiology,  the  proper  conception  of  which  is  contained  in  the  term  "industrial 
relations." 

The  research  summarizes  a  study  of  (1)  U.  S.  Census  Mortality  Statistics 
of  Occupations;  (2)  65,000  dispensary  records  and  many  hundreds  of  cases 
personally  seen  during  a  two-year  period  at  Rush  Medical  College  (Central  Free 
Dispensary)  ;  and  (3)  the  medical  portion  of  27,887  cases  in  which  the  patients 
received  treatment  in  Cook  County  Hospital  during  the  year  1913. 

As  a  result  of  considerable  study  oi  hospital  and  dispensary  cases  and 
records,  of  vital  statistics,  and  of  field  investigations,  we  reach  the  following 
conclusions : 

Suggestions  for  the  Solution   of  the  Problem  of  Occupational   Diseases. 

The  health-hazards  of  industry  which  cannot  be  feasibly  removed  are  in- 
significant in  number.  The  best  proof  is  the  fact  that  certain  establishments 
engaged  in  the  industries  and  processes  in  question  have  circumvented  such 
hazards,  and  invariably  to  the  improvement  of  production,  as  well  as  labor  atti- 
tude and  relations. 

1.  Occupied  persons,  other  than  agriculturists,  sufifer  an  enormous  mortality 
(figures  show  74  per  cent.)  from  well-recognized  preventable  and  prematurely 
degenerative  diseases. 

2.  Occupational  diseases  exist  because  industrial  health-hazards  exist. 
Responsible  employers  do  not  realize  the  existence  of  either,  while  treating 
agencies  take  little  cognizance  of  employments. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  patients  themselves  are  densely  ignorant  of 
what  constitute  health-hazards ;  that  they  calmly  accept  them  as  a  matter  of 
course,  and  unworthy  of  notice;  that  the  competition  for  work  is  great;  and 
(one  comes  to  realize)  so  much  greater  than  everything  else  is  the  innate  desire 
in  man  to  work,  especially  before  middle  life  —  a  desire  which,  in  the  normal 
man,  equals  his  appetite  and  seeks  to  be  satisfied  in  spite  of  all  conditions. 

3.  From  one-fourth  to  one-third  of  the  medical  afflictions  of  tradespersons 
are  due  in  whole,  or  in  great  part,  to  industrial  health-hazards. 

4.  In  institutions,  the  vast  majority  of  industrial  diseases  are  lost  sight  of 
through  failure  to  recognize  properly  the  industrial  relations  of  the  patients,  to 
make  etiologic  diagnoses,  and  to  classify  properly  in  subsequent  filing. 

A  principal  feature  in  all  these  cases  is  to  determine  exactly  the  occupations. 
The  principal  result  should  be  an  etiologic  diagnosis  as  far  as  possible,  includ- 


*  Results  of  a  study  conducted  at  the  Central  Free  Dispensary  (Rush 
Medical  College)  and  Cook  County  Hospital,  Chicago,  under  the  Occupational 
Disease  Fellowship  of  the  Otho  S'.  A.  Sprague  Memorial  Institute  for  Infec- 
tious Diseases. — Abstracted  from  article  in  Jour.  Amer.  Med.  Asso.,  Dec.  12, 
1914,  p.   2093-2097. 


405 

ing  the  use  of  qualifying  terms  such  as  "bronchitis,  occupational,"  "neuritis, 
chiefly  occupational,"  "aortic  aneurysm,  probably  occupational,"  "nephritis  — 
alcoholic  and  lead,"  etc.  This  is  similar  to  uses  elsewhere,  as  seen  in  such 
descriptive  terms  as  puerperal  sepsis,  tuberculous  pneumonia,  typhoid  fever  and 
diabetes  mellitus. 

During  the  course  of  the  year  1913,  there  were  in  the  hospital  2,230  adult 
cases  of  tuberculosis  (I  understand  that  not  over  50  of  there  were  "repeats"), 
1,800  males  and  430  females.  One  may  safely  say  that  practically  none  of  these 
had  active  tuberculosis  at  the  age  of  14  years !  The  question  is.  Why  and  how 
have  they  acquired  it  since?  How  many  of  them  would  have  it  now  had  they 
lived  an   agrarian   existence,    for  instance? 

5.  Specific  occupational  diseases,  such  as  lead  poisoning,  are  not  recog- 
nized in  more  than  one  out  df  three  or  four  instances,  more  especially  the 
chronic  cases. 

Present-day  institutional  records  are  of  value  only  in  showing  the 
enormous  numbers  of  representatives  of  groups  of  industrial  pursuits  who  are 
below  the  physiologic  normal,  and  who  seek  medical  aid  for  preventable  af- 
flictions. Such  records  have  little  value  to  the  student  of  economics.  For 
instance  no  cases  were  recorded  of  pneumonocondosis,  or  of  its  various  forms, 
as  siderosis,  chalicosis,  aluniinosis,  etc.,  although  there  were  a  tptal  of  184 
cases  of  chronic  bronchitis  without  efforts  at  etiologic  diagnosis. 

There  were  recorded  229  cases  of  arteriosclerosis.  Unfortunately  an  idea 
of  the  extent  to  which  fatigue-substances,  heat-toxins  and  extrinsic  poisons  of 
industrial  origin  may  have  entered  into  this  class  of  cases  can  rarely  be  gained 
from  present-day  histories  anywhere ;  hence  any  idea  of  using  the  information 
for  shutting  off  the  oncome  of  such  cases  is  at  once  precluded.  .  They  are  all 
charged  apparently  to  the  account  of  moral  hazards,  or  disease  misfortunes. 

7.  A  most  important  first  remedy  is  a  proper  nomenclature  for  industrial 
relations  to  take  the  place  of  the  word  "occupation."  Such  a  nomenclature  is 
here  propounded. 

Table  ^.  —  Scheme  to  Take  the  Place  of  the  Word  "Occupation." 
Industrial  Relations 

{As  stated  by  the  Patient) 

Previous 
Present         Past        {to  Past)* 

1.  Name  of  employer 

2.  Address  of  employer 

3.  Business  of  employer 

4.  Calendar  years  worked  here 

5.  Department (s)  worked  in 

6.  Particular  process (es)   engaged  in 

7.  Health-hazardsf  exposed  to 

The  chief  feature  of  this  is  the  introduction  of  the  term  "industry-depart- 
ment-process" for  the  word  "occupation." 


*  For  acute  afflictions  it  is  not  necessary  to  go  back  beyond  a  few  days 
or  weeks,  perhaps.  For  recurrent  afflictions  one  should  go  back  months  or 
years.  For  chronic  afflictions  it  is  necessary  to  go  back  preferably  five  years 
or  more.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that  the  busy  entry  clerk  will  fill  out  this 
record.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  the  history  taker,  oftentimes  with  the  aid  of 
an  interpreter,  and,  if  significant,  even  with  outside  assistance. 

t  Question  "7"  should  be  answered  whenever  there  is  any  possible  relation- 
ship between  the  patient's  affliction  and  his  industrial  relations. 


4o6 

Table  6.  —  Examples  of  the  Complete  Statemext  for  •"Occupation." 

Industry  Business  Dept.  Trade  Process 

Pottery  Clay   shop  Jiggerman 

Pottery  Glaze  room  Dipper's    helper 

Vehicle  Painting  Painter    and    sander 

Agricultural   implements  Painting  Dipping    machine    laborer 

Iron    and   steel  Butt   mill  Furnaceman 

Brass  Foundry  Furnaceman 

Iron   foundry  Foundry  Laborer 

General  Nondescript  Laborer 

In  this  way  it  is  possible  to  classify  any  one's  trade  or  calling  exactly. 
As  in  the  case  of  "iron  foundry,"  redundancies  seemingly  occur,  but  these  are 
only  apparent,  for  all  the  information  obtained  is  necessary  to  exactly  identify 
each  worker's  industrial  application  and  environment.  Adoption  of  this  pro- 
posed term,  furthermore,  renders  a  logical  classification  of  occupations  possible. 
Xo  such  classification  now  exists. 

8.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  state  in  which  this  study  was  made 
(Illinois)  has  an  occupational  disease  law%  workers  are  still  coming  into  its 
charitable  institutions  from  the  same  types  of  trades,  and  in  some  instances, 
from  the  same  manufacturing  establishments,  in  even  greater  numbers  than 
at  a  period  three  years  previous,  w-hen  the  Illinois  Commission  on  Occupational 
Diseases  made  its  investigation.  This,  we  charge,  is  most  directly  due  to  the 
non-existence  of  a  correlating  body  betw^een  the  hospital  and  the  factory. 

9.  The  powers  and  functions  of  the  community  health-governing  body 
should  be  extended  to  the  prompt  investigation  of  all  industrial  complaints,  and 
to  the  prompt  remedying  of  them  without  the  necessity  of  preliminary  legisla- 
tion   against    certain    alleged    responsible    industries. 

10.  Too  much  importance  is  usually  given  to  alcoholism,  with  a  failure  to 
appreciate  that  subjection  to  industrial  health-hazards  in  itself  induces  and 
promotes  stimulantism. 

(3)  As  most  of  the  problems  concerned  have  to  do  with  educa- 
tion and  the  creation  through  appeal  and  psychological  means  of  a 
receptive  and  subsequently  active  state  of  mind  of  the  masses  con- 
cerned, it  does  not  appear  that  much  legislation  is  needed.  In  fact,  in 
this  field,  legislation  is  probably  more  valuable  for  education  than  for 
what  it  actually  accomplishes.  On  this  account  it  should  be  very  care- 
fully prepared,  of  a  conservative  nature,  and  flexible  in  character  so 
as  to  meet  the  manv  problems,  often  new  ones,  which  arise.  In  short, 
enough  legislation  is  needed  to  permit  health-governing  bodies  to 
make  investigations  of  specific  complaints,  determine  the  inerits  of 
the  complaints,  the  kind  and  degree  of  health-hazards  present,  and  the 
responsibility  which  both  employers  and  employes  should  assume  in 
eradicating  any  hazards  found.  In  Ohio,  the  State  Board  of  Health 
is  in  a  position  to  handle  the  vast  majority  of  these  situations  through 
board  of  health  regulations. 


407 

It  is  believed  that  two  bills  to  be  introduced,  (i)  "The  Model 
State  Law  for  Morbidity  Reports,"  and  (2)  a  bill  "to  Divide  the  State 
into  Health  Districts;  to  Provide  for  the  Appointment  of  District 
Health  Officers,  Deputies  and  Assistants ;  and  to  Prescribe  the  Powers 
and  Duties  of  Such  Officers,  Deputies  and  Assistants"  will  provide 
such  legislation  as  is  necessary. 


INDEX. 


Note  —  The  cross  reference  abbreviations  used  have  the  following  significances: 

D.  —  Dusts  reported  as  hazards. 

O.  C.  —  Occupational  complaints  reported. 

O.  D.  —  Occupational  diseases  reported. 

P.  —  Poisons  reported  as  occupational  hazards. 

*  —  Consult  each  industry  and  process  described,  especially  in  Part  V.,  where 

the  subject,  if  it  appertains  at  all,  will  be  found  discussed  in  its  proper  place 

and  relationships. 


Abortion,  due  to  lead  poisoning,  379. 

Abrasives,  136,  141,  268. 

Absorption,    through    the    skin,     (lead), 

378. 
Accidental  poisoning,   16,   192. 
Accident  (s)      and     injuries      {see     also 

Violence),  16,  88,  129,  137,  192,  301, 

378. 
Acetone,  172,  176,  199. 
Acetylene  welding,  150. 
Aches  and  pains   {see  also  O.  C),  35 
Acid(s)    {see  also  P.),  42,  69,  74,   160, 

161,  203,  282,  349. 
Acid,  acetic,  152,  191. 
Acid  burns,  203. 
Acid,  carbonic,  293. 
Acids,  carboys  of,  160,  350. 
"Acid  cure",  222. 
Acid   dipping,    fumes   of,   144,    155,   158, 

161,  162. 
Acids,  fatty,  271. 
Acid,    formic,    172. 
Acid,   hydrochloric,    {see   also    P.),    153, 

157. 
Acid,  hydrofiouric,   {see  also  P.),  265. 
Acid,  nitric.     See  P. 
Acid,  nitrosonitric    (nitrous),    {see  also 

P.),  343. 
Acid,  oxalic,  266,  267. 
Acid,  phosphates,  347. 
Acid,   stearic,   271. 
Acid,  sulphuric,   {see  also  P.),  153,  201, 

317. 


Acid,  sulphurous  {see  also  Sulphur  di- 
oxide), 350. 

Acid,  tartaric,  270.    ,    . 

Acidulating  mixer,   349. 

Acker,  Mr.,  4. 

Acne,  340. 

Actinic  rays,  150. 

Act.     See  Law. 

Advertising  novelties,   75. 

Aerographing,   190,   191. 

Age,  average,*  61,  87,  101,  319,  383. 

Age,  old,   (vital  statistics),  13,  87. 

Aging   {see  also   Presenile),  205. 

Agricultural   implements,   59. 

Agricultural  pursuits  (vital  statistics), 
14. 

Agricultural  workers,  89. 

Air*,  25,  27,  28,  30,  177,  180. 

Air  breathed  per  hour,  267. 

Air-emholi,  48. 

Air-locks,  48,   102. 

Air  vitiators*,  27. 

Albuminous  substances,  356. 

ALCOHOLISM,  50. 

Alcohol  and  alcoholism,*  10,  13,  49,  50, 
112,  172,  191,  208,  288,  406. 

Aldehydic  substances,  172. 

Alkalies   {see  also  P.),  42,  74.  256,  258. 

Alkaloidal  woods,  166. 

Alloys,  143,  151,  173,  183. 

Alphabetical  list  of  occupational  di- 
sases,  etc.,  372. 

Alternation,  32,  37,  112,  237,  314.  " 


409 


4IO 


Alum,  144,  336,  337,  339. 

Aluminosis,  18,  405. 

Aluminum,  133,  141,  176,  208,  268. 

Ambition,  loss  of,  121. 

American  Museum  of  Safety,  203. 

Amherst  (Ohio),  typhoid  fever  out- 
break,   99. 

Ammonia  (see  also  P.),  82,  121,  225, 
341. 

Ammonium  chloride  (see  also  Sal  am- 
moniac), 343. 

Ammonium  sulphate  and  phosphate,  348. 

Ammunition,    344. 

Amperage   (welding),  150. 

Amy!  acetate.    See  P. 

Amyl   compounds.     See   P. 

Anaesthetics,  289. 

Andrews,  Dr.  John  B.,  343. 

Anemia  (see  also  O.  D.),  13,  29,  36,  97, 
285. 

Anilin  dyes    (see  also  P.),  336. 

Anilin  oil   (see  also  P.),  42,  74. 

Anilin   orange,  67. 

Anilin  poisoning,   208,   210. 

Animal  infections,  42,  178,  318,  320,  348. 

Ankylostomiasis.      See    Hookworm. 

Anthracosis,  18. 

Anthrax,  42,  97,  331,  348. 

"Anti-example",    353. 

Antimony  (see  also  P.),  42,  74,  1-3.3,  207, 
210,  242. 

Anxiety,   36. 

Apoplexy,  126,  186,  300,  318,  393. 

Apparatus   for  lead  tests,  386,  387,  390. 

Appearance  of  workers,*  112. 

Appendicitis,  87,  98,  120,  380. 

Appetite,  loss  of,  49,  153,  216,  221,  *228, 
25.3,  271,  287,  353. 

Arsenic   (see  also  P.),  42,  155,  156,  160. 

Arsenic  sulphide,  318. 

Arsine,    15.3. 

Artware,  229,  238,  239,  247,  250. 

Arterial  sclerosis,   55,   186,  405. 

Artificial  respiration  apparatus  (Melt- 
zer),  42,  47,  48,  399. 

Artists,  art  work,  176,  190,  191,  357. 

Asbestos  coverng,  30,  226. 

Asbestos   finger  cots,   205. 

Ashes,  122,   124. 

Asphaltum,   170,    175,  339. 

Assembling,  117,  134,  135,  144,  265. 


Asphyxiation,  293,  298,  315,  393. 

Asthma.     See  Bronchitis. 

Athens    (Ohio)    State   Hospital,  394. 

Attitude  toward  workers,*  109. 

Automobiles,   etc.,  59,  378,  392. 

Autotoxemia,    180. 

Babbit  metal  and  solder,  59,  268,  269. 

Babcock,  S.  M.,   394,  398. 

Backache,    181. 

Bacilltis  tuberculosis,   18,  89. 

Bag-making,  181. 

Bags    (rubber),   222. 

Bakers    (-eries,  -ing),  83,  123,   175,  232, 

239,  269,  272,  275. 
Balling   (cordage),  331,  3-33. 
Balloons,  219. 
"Banana   oil,"   172,   328. 
Banders    (-ing),  283,  289. 
Barbers    (-ing),  101. 
Barach's  Cardiac  Energy  Index,  384. 
Barefooted  workers,  337,  338. 
Basic  slag,  347,  349. 
Bath  tubs,  269. 
Baths    (see   also    Shower   baths)*,    344, 

345. 
Battery  dust,  203. 
Batters-out   (pottery),  234. 
Bead-making    (rubber),    213. 
Beards,*  46,  112,  208. 
Beating  rags    (see  also  Rags),  184,  336. 
Beating  machines,  335,  336. 
Beer,  280,  349. 

Belief  concerning  alcohol,   10,  208. 
Belts    (rubber),   219. 
"Bends,"  49. 

Benzene    (see  also   Benzol),  74. 
Benzine   (see  also   P.),  42,  74,  135,   170, 

172,  215,  219. 
Benzine  and  Benzol  Poisoning,  table  of 

cases  of,  376. 
Benzine  emitter,  213,  219. 
Benzine  "jags,"  216,  221. 
Benzol   (see  also   P.),  42,  74. 
BeFgey    (Textbook  of  Hygiene),   10. 
Bessemer    furnaces,    workers,    58,    304, 

307,  313. 
Beveling,  262,  270. 
Benzine  poisoning.     See  P. 
Bichromate  poisoning,  192. 
Bicycles,  etc.,  60. 
Binders   (-eries,  -ing),  190,  283. 


411 


Birch,  167. 

Bismuth,   133. 

Bisque   kilns,   240,   244. 

Bisque  ware,  239,  247. 

"Black  men,"  345. 

Blacking,   blackening,   326,   327. 

Black  pickle,   153. 

Black  plate,  153,  156. 

Blacksmiths    (-smithing),    124,    126,   136, 

146,   148. 
Bladder  afifections,   129,   171,   173,   353. 
Blank   forms   for  reporting,   6,   111,   112. 
Blankets,  330. 
Blast  furnaces  and  workers,  58,  85,  121, 

301. 
Blasting  powder,  344,  345. 
Bleaching,    193,    290,   291,   317,   336,   337, 

339. 
Bleaching  by  electricity,  193. 
Bleeding  fingers,   171. 
Blepharitis,  67,  299. 
Blindness,  124,  150,  192. 
Blistering,  300,  315. 
Blockers    (-ing),   191,   192. 
Blood    (animal),  347. 
Blood    poisoning,   41,    147,    158,    192. 
Blowers,  inefficient,  144,  167. 
Blowing    (enamel),   173. 
Blow-pipe    (s),    (-piping),    22,    69,    149, 

201,  258,  260. 
"Blue  line,"  380. 
Blunging  mills,  229. 
Board  of  health  regulations,  406. 
Body-ironers,  195. 
Boiled  oil,  170,  339,  340,  356. 
Boilermaker's  deafness,  147,  301,    (315), 

(316). 
Boiler  making,  147. 
Boiler  rooms,   122. 
Bolting,  207. 
Bone   dust  fever,  349. 
Bones,  347,  348,  349,  350. 
Bookkeepers,  89. 
Bookmaking,   213. 
Books  on  occupational  diseases,   etc.,  9, 

10. 
Boots  (and  shoes),  80,  219,  .321. 
Bosh  tanks,  302. 
Bottlers    (-es,    -ing),    88,   261,    278,   280, 

281.  282. 


Bottom     finishing,     bottoming     (shoes), 

826. 
Boxes,  60. 

Boys,  234,  236,  258,  260,  334. 
Bran,   18,   157. 
Branchmen,  296. 
Branding,   289. 
Brass,   brassworkers,    {see  also   P.),   14, 

42,  61,  89,  139,  141,  143,  151. 
Brass  and  Bronze  products,  60,  138. 
Brassfounders'  ague,  2. 
Brassfounding,  129,  132,  182. 
Brass  poisoning,  table  of  cases  of,  377. 
Bravado,  90. 
Braiziers'  disease,   150. 
Brazing,  136,  149. 
Bread,  272. 

Breaking    (cordage),   331. 
Breathing  {see  also  O.  C),  267,  331. 
Brewers   (-eries,  -ing),  88,  278,  280,  281, 

282,  399. 
Bricklayers,  58. 
Brick  and  tile,  77,  295. 
Bright's  disease   (see  also  Kidney  affec- 
tions), 13,  29,  126,  173,  301,  318. 
Brilliancy,  22,   150. 
Brine,  147,  299. 

Bristles,  bristle  wheels,  249,  326. 
Bronchitis    {see  also  O.  C.  and  O.  D.), 

28,  87,  405. 
Bronze (s),  bronzing,  138,  141,  143,   175. 

176,  186. 
Brooms,  broom  corn,  77,  290. 
Brush  (-es,  -ing),  168,  172,  173,  191,  201, 

213,  218,  222,  239. 
Buffing.     See  Polishing. 
Buffing   (rubber),  217. 
Building  workers,  58. 
Bullet  (s),  346. 
Bunch-breaking,  283,  285. 
Burling,  328,  329. 

Burns,  129,  139,   156,  158,  205,  265,  343. 
Burnt  rubber,  226. 
Butcher's   wart,   348. 
Butt  welding,  312. 
By-products,  270,  347. 
Byssinosis,  18. 

Cabinets,  cabinet  making,  165,  199. 
Casein,  356. 
Caisson  work,  48,  101,  105,  112. 


412 


Calcium  carbonate,  208,  293,  342. 

Calcium  chloride,  340,  342. 

Calcium  oxide  (see  also  Lime),  298. 

Calculating  machines,  etc.,  62. 

Calendering    (mills),  206,  208,   211,  356. 

Calluses,*  41,  112,  205,  266,  300,  316. 

Canal  water,  use  of,  337. 

Cancer,  13,  22,  87,  88,  151,  203,  340. 

Candies,  273. 

Candles,  270. 

Candy  pulling,  274. 

Cans   (tin),  151,  226,  277,  354. 

Canning,  151,  275,  278. 

Capping,  278. 

Capriciousness,     of     individual,     (lead), 

378. 
Caps,  243,  273,  275,  276,  385. 
Caps,  priming,  344,  346. 
Caramel,  282. 
Carbon,  203. 

Carbonated  waters,  83,  278,  281. 
Carbon  bisulphide,  42,  74,  199,  221,  224, 

225,  226,  228. 
Carbon  dioxid  (see  also  P.),  27. 
Carbon  monoxide.     See  P. 
Carbon  tetrachloride,  74,  224. 
Carborundum,  136,  268,  326. 
Carcasses,  347,  349. 
"Cardiacs,"   18. 
Carding,  328,  329,  331,  346. 
Carpet   cleaning,    199. 
Carpenter  (s)     (-ing),    14,    27,    89,    165, 

166. 
"Carpenter's  stoop,"  166. 
Cars,  rails,  etc.,  62,  150,  158,  170. 
Carriages,  etc.,  62. 
Cartridges,  344,  346. 
Case  hardening,   181,   147. 
Cash  registers,  etc.,   62. 
Casing    (tobacco),  282,  288. 
Castings,    130,    132,    134,    136,    139,    141, 

156. 
Casual  workers,*  343,  379. 
Cataracts,   22,   124,   150,  260,  300. 
Catarrh,  29,  135,  156,  260,  266,  349. 
Catarrhal   jaundice,   42. 
Catsup,  276,  278. 
Cellars,  281. 
Cement    (-ers,   -ing,    -mixing),    78,    181, 

213,  215,  218,  225,  226,  294,  295,  325, 

326,  327. 


Central   Free   Dispensary,   404. 

Ceramic.     See  Pottery. 

Certificate  of  industrial  disease,  6. 

Chairs  or  stools,  88,  112. 

Chalcicosis,  18,  405. 

Chancre,  260. 

Change  rooms,*  110. 

Charcoal    (see   also   Carbon),   345. 

Charging,  202. 

Charitable    institutions,     120,     189,    858, 

403. 
Cheeks,  dilatation  of,  260. 
Chemicals,   68,    168,    165,   817,   820,   339, 

340,  341,  892. 
.  Chest  protector,  144. 
Childhood   infection,   90. 
Children,  108. 
Chimneysweeps,  204. 
China  clay,  356. 
Chinaware,   247. 
Chinese-jute,  881,  882. 
Chipping,  139,  265. 
Chlorine,  225,  291,  387,  389. 
Chloroform,   199. 
Chocolates,  275. 
"Chokes,"  49. 
Chrome(s),   191,  242,  818. 
Cigars     (workers,    processes),    83,    282, 
■     288,   286,   289. 
Cincinnati,  18,  80,  171,  360,  391. 
Cinders    (see  also  Ashes),  180. 
Circulatory  diseases,  18,  86. 
Classification    of    occupational    diseases, 

etc.,  857,  406. 
Clay   dust,    18,   229,   245,   268,   295,   296, 

856. 
Clay,  making,  molding,  229,  234,  285,  240. 
Cleaning,  cleanliness,*  112,  168,  181,  186, 

196,  198,  201,  202,  264,  270,  288,  288, 

296,  327,  828,  852. 
Cleaning  compounds,  270. 
Clerks,  29,  89. 

Cleveland,   98,   101,  360,   391. 
Closets    (toilets),*  39,  50,  112,  131,  245, 

247,  260,  277,  294,  813. 
Clothes,*  39,  46,  192,  199. 
Cloth  cutting,  39. 
Clothing  and  textiles,  81,  333. 
Cloth   fabric,  211. 
Cloth  windows,  25. 
Coal,  18,  100,  101,  122,  124,  295,  348. 


413 


Coating    (oilcloth,  linoleum),  356. 

Cobalt,  252. 

Cocobola  wood,   167. 

Cod-liver   oil,   317. 

Cofifeeism,   10,  218. 

Coffins,  etc.,  63,  143. 

Coke,  121,  130,  339. 

COLD,  32. 

Cold*,  104,  112,  237,  238,  241,  260,  275, 

337,  338. 
Colds   (see  also  O.  C),  25,  32,  39,  102. 
Cold  cure   (rubber),  218,  222. 
Cold  mill  processes,  309,  313,  316. 
Cold  room,  340. 
Cold  storage,  278,  280. 
Cold  vulcanizing,  222. 
Colic,  29,  202,  215,  315,  380. 
Collodian,  191. 
"Colonies,"  276. 
Colored  ware,  247. 
Color (s)    (-ing),  177,  196,  239,  250.  295, 

319,  320,  332,  350. 
Combs   (-ing),  143,  328,  329,  331. 
Committee  on  Resuscitation  from  Mine 

Gases,  399. 
Committee  on   Storage  Batteries,  203. 
Company  buildings,  276. 
Company   physician,   358. 
Compensation,  2,   139,  273,  404. 
Competition  for  work,  404. 
Complaints.*     See  O.   C. 
Composing.     See  Printing. 
Compounding,    163,   207,   278. 
''Composition    of    Paint    Vapors,    The," 

172. 
COMPRESSED  AIR,  48,  101,  266. 
Concrescence,   36. 
"Condition  of  Employment  in  the  Iron 

and     Steel     Industry,     Report     on," 

300 
Confections    (-ers,  -eries),  84,   272,  273. 
Congenital   defects,  89. 
Conjunctivitis   (see  also  Eye  affections), 

22,   67,   92,    120,   139,    150,   264,   267, 

300. 
Constant  standing,  38,  332. 
Constant  strain,  38. 

Constipation     (see    also    Digestive    dis- 
turbances),  269,  363. 
Construction,  hygienic*,  108. 
Construction-camp    workers,    42. 


Consumption.     See   Tuberculosis. 
"Consumption    and    Preventable    Deaths 

in  American  Occupations,"  14. 
"Consumption  Mortality  from,  in  Dusty 

Trades,"  9. 
Contagions,  25,  39. 
Contamination    (of  air)*,  26. 
Contrasts  (lights  and  shadows),  22,  112. 
Cook  County  Hospital,  404. 
Cooking,  275,  288,  350. 
Cooperage,  'etc.,  78,   165,  293. 
Cooperation,  lack  of,  205. 
Cooperative  legislation,  402,  406. 
Copper,  etc.,  63,  133,  162,  163,  191,  316, 

340. 
Cordage,  etc.,  78,  331,  333. 
Core-making,  126,  129,  13'4. 
Corking,  278,  282. 
Corneal  opacitis,    124. 
Corning  mills,  345. 
Correlation    (hazards  vs.  diseases),  402, 

403,  406. 
Corrosives,  120,  159,  191,  347. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  191. 
Corundum,   136,  268. 
Cosgrave,  Judge  O.  J.,  2. 
Cotton,   18,  81,   143,   179,   329,   330,   333, 

334,  346. 
Cough.     See  O.   C. 
Council  of  Social  Agencies,  13. 
Cow-hair,  346. 
Cow-pox,  42. 

Cox,  James  M.,  Governor,  5. 
Crackers,  272. 
Cramps,  131,  215,  300,  308. 
Creosote,   170,  203. 
Crimping,  332. 
Crisp,  H.  L.,  394. 
Crowding,  39,  112. 
Crude  oil,  331. 
Crushing,  231,  343. 
Crystalline  dust,  152,  268. 
Cuff-ironers,    195. 
Cupboards,   199,  224. 
Cups,  common  use  of,  39,  112. 
Cure    (-ing,)    (rubber),   214,  218. 
Curriers,  319. 
Cuspidors,*  39,  112,  120. 
Cutlery  and   tools,  64,   123. 
Cuts,  158,  166,  205,  275. 
Cutting,  181,  262,  324,  330. 


414 


Cyanamide,  348,  349. 

Cyanide    fumes,    etc.,   69,    154,    162,    192, 

318. 
Cyanotic  appearance,   319. 
DAMPNESS,*    23,    112,    162,    182,    231, 

232,  238,  264,  267,  281,  296.  . 
Dancing  pupils,   181. 
Dark  glasses,*  23. 
DARKNESS,*  21,  29. 
Daylight,   21. 
"Dead"  air,  26. 
"Dead  Gas,"  293. 
Deafness    {see  also   O.   C.   and   O.   D.), 

36. 
Death.     See  Age  and  Vital  Statistics. 
Death   of  the  new-born    (due  to  lead), 

379. 
Deaths,  87,  262,  270,  301,  343,  357,  393. 
Deaths   after   70  years,   14. 
Deaths,  questionable,  13,  153. 
Debility,  general,  300. 
Decalcomania,    190,  250. 
Decorating,  174,  175,  240,  250,  265. 
Definitions,  54,  359,  382. 
Deformities,  35,  273. 
Degenerative  diseases,  14,  137,  165,  192, 

213,  404. 
Degreasing,  347,  348,  349. 
Deoxidizing,   340. 
Deoxidation,*  26. 
Department    (defined),  54. 
Dermatitis    {see   also    Skin,    and    O.    C. 

and  O.  D.),  135,  213. 
Dermatitis,  table  of  cases  of,  375. 
Descent  of  deceased,  87. 
Designing,  176,  190,  265. 
Desire  to  work,  innate,  404. 
Desulphurizing,   340. 
DEVITALIZING  AIR,  26. 
Diagnosis,  etiologic,  404. 
Diagnosis    of    lead    poisoning,    378,    380. 
Diamond  cutting,  69.    . 
Diarrhoea,  131,  300,  315. 
Digestive    disturbances    {see    also    Dys- 

pepsia  and  O.  C),  49,  154,  163,  196. 
Dining  cars,  291. 
Diphtheria,  39,  147. 
Dippers    (-ing),   157,   168,   172,   173,  215, 

222,  225,  235,  239,  243,  244,  250,  275, 

288. 
DIRT,*  20,   112. 


Dirt  and  dirt  floors,*  130,  131,  318,  320, 

330,  331. 
Diseases.     See  O.  D. 
Diseases,  circulatory,   13,  36. 
Diseases   and   occupational   factors,  404. 
"Diseases   of  Occupation,"   9. 
Dish-makers,  234. 
Dispensary  (-ies),  96,  120,  139,  182,  202, 

358,  404. 
Dissipated,  320. 
Disorder,*  20,   112. 
Distillers    (-ing),  339,  340,  399. 
Division   of   industries,   51,   103. 
Dizziness   {see  also  O.  C).  219,  349. 
Dock  hands,  58. 

Doehring,  C.  F.  W.,  350.  .354,  356. 
Dogs   (test  purposes),  397. 
Dog-trotters,  234. 
Domestics,  tuberculosis  rate,   14. 
Dough,  272. 
Drafts.     See   Cold. 
Drawing,  328,   329,  331. 
Drawing  kilns,  297. 
Dressing    (pottery),   247. 
Drier (s),  42,  170,  189. 
Drilling    (rock),   262. 
Drill-pressing,   144. 
Drinking   facilities,*   110.   112. 
Drivers,  deaths'  among,  88. 
Dropsy,  87,  88. 
Dross,   130. 

Drugs  and  sundries,  163,  219,  224. 
Drugism,  10. 
Dry  batteries,  203. 
Dry  color  grinding,*  163. 
Dry  cleaning,  64,  192,  196. 
Dry  grinding   {see  also  Grinding),*  262, 

'  263. 
Drying,  195,  290,  356. 
Drying  oils,  170,  175. 
Drying  ovens   (rooms)    {see  also  Kilns), 

123,  234,  319. 
Drying  paints,   172. 
Dryness,*  24,  112,  180. 
Dry  sweeping,*  20. 
DUST,*  17. 

"Dust,  dangers  of,"    (placard),  393. 
Dust,   every  imaginable  character,  335. 
Dusting,   173. 
Dusts,  reported  as  hazards, 

Abrasives,  268. 


415 


Dusts,  reported  as  hazards  —  continued. 
Acid   phosphates,   347. 
Alkalies,   271. 
Alkaloidal  Avoods,   166. 
Alum,  336,  839. 
Aluminum,  208. 
Ammonium  sulphate  and  phosphate, 

348. 
Anilin  dyes,  344. 
Antimony,  208,  257. 
Arsenic,  257. 
Ashes,  122,  124. 
Basic  slag,  347,  349,  350. 
"Battery  dust,"  203. 
Birch.    167. 

Bicarbonate    (sodium),  342. 
Blacking,   326. 
Bleaching    powders,    339. 
Bone,  348,  349. 
Bran,  157. 
Brass  alloys,  143. 
Bristles,  326. 
Bronze  alloys,  143. 
Broom  corn,  290. 
Calcium  carbonate,    (208),  342. 
Carbon,  203. 
Carborundum,    268,    326. 
Cement,   295. 
Charcoal,  345. 

Cinders,  130. 

Clay.    229,    232,    235,    245,    268,    296, 
.356. 

Coal,  122,  294,  295. 

Cocobola    wood,    167. 

Coloring  compounds,  295. 

Corn  meal,  67. 

Corundum,    268. 

Corrosive,  347. 

Cotton,  143,  179,  329,  330,  332,  333. 

Crystalline,   137,  143,  268. 

Cyanamide,  348,  349. 

Dolomite,  307. 

Dried  organic  J;ankage,  348. 

Dried  spray,  174. 

Dross,  130. 

Dry  vegetables,  276. 

Dye  ingredients,  200. 

Earths,    127,   229,   276,   306,   330, 

Emery,  143,  298,  319,  326. 

Enamel.  269.  378. 

Excelsior,  177. 


Dusts,  reported  as  hazards  —  continued. 
Feathers,    334. 
Felt,  333. 

Fettling,  247,  248,  249. 
Fillers,  174,  378. 
Flax,   177. 
Flaxseed  meal,  340. 
Flint,  229,  231,  245. 
Flour,  273,  316. 
Font,  186, 

Forge   deposits,    125. 
Ftir,   179. 
Furnace,  124. 
class,   143,   204,   256,   258.   261,   263, 

344,  378. 
Glaze,  239,  240,  245,  248,  255,  (378). 
Glue  substances.   143. 
Graphite,    163. 

Grinding,  dry,  263,  269,  343. 
Ground  laying.  251. 
Gypsum,    347. 

Hair,  177,  179,  317,  330,  333. 
Hay,  177. 
Hemp,    179,   332. 
Iron  and  iron  oxides,  130,  143,  208, 

306,  316,  340. 
Lead,*   169,   174,   202,  208,  240,  245, 

(266),  328,  340,  356,  378. 
Lead     oxides.        {See     note     under 

Lead),   342. 
Leather,   179,  320,  325.  326. 
Lime,  293,  295,  339,  342,  348. 
Lint,  143,  179,  228,  326,  329,  330,  332, 

333. 
Litharge    {see  also   Lead).  257,  356. 
Lithopone,  356. 
Manganese,   257. 
Machine,    166. 
Mahogany,  67. 
Magnesite,  307. 
Marble,  266. 
Metal,  125,  144,  183. 
Metallic   and    Poisonous,*   207. 
Middlings,  157. 
Milling,  280. 
Mineral,   349,   351. 
Mold  powders,   127. 
Mold  sand,  127,  130,  213. 
Moss,   177. 
Oak  wood,  67. 
Organic,  348. 


4i6 


Dusts,  reported  as  hazards  —  continued. 
Oxalic  acid,  266. 
Oxidized    iron    and    steel,   316. 
Paint,   174,  378. 
Paper,    183. 
Paste(s),  201,  266. 
Peanut    shells,    157. 
Phosphate,    348. 
Phosphate   rock,    347. 
Plaster-of-Paris,   233. 
Poisonous.* 
Potash,  348. 

Potassium  chlorate,  344. 
Potassium  dichromate,  344. 
Polish,  polishing,  179,  263,  298. 
Polishing  powders,  263. 
Pottery,   239,   378. 
Powder,   263,  345. 
Pumice,    266. 

Rags,  183,  335,  336.  ■       ' 

Red  lead  (see  also  Lead),  257. 
Rosin,  326,  336,  339,  344. 
Rubber,  217,  219,  228,  378. 
Rubber  scraps,  213. 
Salt,    290. 
Sand,    125,    127,    140,   174,   204,   265, 

296,  300,  306,  326,  378. 
Sanding,  169,  249,  378. 
Sanding   belts   and   paper,   166,    169. 
Sawdust,    157. 
Shellac,   268,  326. 
Shoddy,  228. 
Silica,   143,  268,  271. 
Slag,  130. 

Smoke,  121,   124,  282. 
Soap,  271. 
Soapstone,    206,    208,    211,    212,    213, 

214,  215,  218,  219,  223,  225,  226. 
Soda  ash,  257,  339. 
Sodium   carbonate,  339,  342. 
Soft    metals    (see   also    under   each 

metal  process),  143. 
Solder,    152. 
Soot,   121,   125. 
Sparks,    151. 
Starch,  272,  274. 
Steel,  143. 

Stone,  266,  267,  268,  298. 
Straw,   256. 
Street  sweeping,  291. 
Sulphur,  223,  225,  340,  345. 


Dusts,  reported  as  hazards  —  concluded. 

Superphosphates,  347. 

Tobacco,  284,  286,  288. 

Talcum,  203. 

Tan  bark,  317. 

Textile,  179,  330,  331. 

Tiles,  255. 

Thomas   slag,  350. 

Tin    compounds,   266. 

Tinting,    251. 

Tobacco   leaves,  283,   284,   286,   289. 

Tow,    177. 

Type,    186,    378. 

Twine,  333. 

Vegetable  fibre,  177. 

Walnut,  167. 

Wax,  326. 

Whiting,   328. 

Wood,   166,  333. 

Wool,   179,  330,   332. 

Zinc  and  zinc  oxide,  208,  265. 
"Dusty    Trades,    Mortality    from    Con- 
sumption in,"  9. 
Dutch   process,   342. 
Dyes  (-ing),  120,  173,  196,  199,  200,  290, 

319,  356. 
Dynamometer   (hand)  test,  384. 
Dynamo  quarters,  122. 
Dyspepsia      (see     also     Digestive     dis- 
turbances and  O.  C),  139,  224,.  287. 
Ear    affections.      See    Deafness,    O.    C. 

and  O.   D. 
Earths.     See  D. 
East  Youngstown,  93 
Eat   (-ing)*,  46,  110,  112,  170,  202,  204, 

257,   275,   353. 
Eczema.    See  Skin  affections,  O.  C.  and 

O.  D. 
Edge  butting    (rubber),   218. 
Edison  Illuminating  Companies,  203. 
Education,    lectures,    54,    402,    403,    406. 
Efficiency,*  112. 
Electric  accumulators,  201. 
Electric  apparatus,  etc.,  64. 
Electric  cutters,  330. 
Electric  fans*,  31. 
Electric  furnaces,  307. 
Electric  fuses,  344,  346. 
Electric    lamps,    manufacture    of,    "204. 
Electric   lights.* 
Electric  welding,  150. 


417 


Electrical    workers,    statistics    of,    58. 
Electrolyte,  160,  201. 
Electrolytic  test   (for  lead),  387. 
Electroplating,  61,  64,  143,  144,  154,  158, 

160,  174,  191,  263. 
Electrotypes    (-ing),    76,    161,    163,    188, 

191. 
Emaciation,  35,  173. 
Emanations    (human),  27. 
Embossing,  176,  356. 
Emergency  rooms,  41. 
Emery,  78,  136,  141,   143,  217,  268,  269, 

298,  320,  326. 
Emitters,    benzine,    325. 
Employer's   responsibility,   121,   164. 
Employes,  not  appreciative,  323. 
Empyema,    139. 
Enamel    (-ers,   -ing),   65,    123,    161,   163, 

168.  173,  175,  265,  319,  350,  378. 
Engineers    (-ing),  21,  122,  123,  167,  204, 

293. 
Engraving,   65,    176. 
"Epidemics,"  135,  171. 
Epitheliomata,  203. 
Erf,   Oscar,  394,  399. 
Erysipelas,    42,    147,    158,    192,    348. 
Establishment   (defined),  54. 
Etch  (-ers,  -ing),  190,  264,  265. 
Ether,  191,  199. 
Etiologic  diagnosis,  404. 
Euphos  glass,  151. 
Evans,  Prof.  Wm.  L.,  392,  398. 
"Everybody's    business,"    243. 
Excelsior,  177,  333. 
Exercise*    39,  112. 
Exhaust  ventilation*,  18,  29,  131. 
Exhaustion.     See  Fatigue. 
Exhibit,   Public  Health,  3,  403. 
Explosives,  explosions,  65,  197,  215,  226, 

301,  308,  344,  345,  346,  350. 
External  causes,  vital  statistics,   13. 
Extractors   (laundry),  194. 
Extrinsic  poisoning,  50. 
Eye(s),   eyestrain    (sec   also   O.   C.   and 

O.  D.)*,  38,  55,  69,  93,  96,  112,  154, 

163,  350. 
Eyeshades,  23. 
Fabric,  219,  356. 
Faces,  flushed,   173,  347. 
Factory   help,   117. 

27  0.  D. 


Factory  processes,*  52,  117,  152. 

Fainting,  218,  221,  281. 

Fancy  branding,  46,  379. 

Fans,  ventilation,*  25,  27,  28,  31. 

Farmers,  13,  14,  357. 

Fatality.     See  Deaths. 

FATIGUE,*  33. 

Fatigue  (see  also  O.  C),  104,  112,  226, 
315. 

"Fatigue  and  Efficiency,"  9. 

Fatigue  anti-toxin,  11,  35. 

Fatigue  toxins  or  poisons,  11,  33,  34,  38, 
39,  180,  405. 

Faulty  postures,*  38,  69,  112. 

"Fatigue  psychosis,"  36. 

Feathers,   renovating  of,  334. 

Feeders,    194,    195. 

"Feet  dry,  cannot  keep,"  27!j. 

Feet  (see  also  O.  C),  35. 

Felt,  82,  333,  346.  . 

Female  disturbances.    Sec  O.  C. 

Fermentation,  280,  316. 

Ferric   chloride,   191,   275. 

Ferro-silicon  poisoning,  301. 

Fertilizer   (s),  65,  271,  347. 

Fettling,  ,247,   249. 

Fibre   (s),  177,  179,  330,  331,  332. 

Fibrosis,  18,  29,  36. 

Filament   making,   mounting,   205. 

Files  (-ing,  -cutting).  66,  262.  298. 

Filing  systems  and  industrial  com- 
plaints,   404. 

Fillers    (-ing),  168,   174,  278,  378,  370. 

Filling  containers,  351,  354. 

Films,   191. 

Filtering  petroleum,  340. 

Finger-cots,  215,  222,  224,  213,  254,  255, 
266. 

Fingernails,  202,  250. 

Finishers    (potters),    234,    236.   • 

Finishing,*  117,  134,  205,  229,  234.  240. 
247,  327,  333. 

Finishing    (glass),    262. 

Fire  (s,  -ing),  197,  215,  226,  297,  319, 
350. 

Fire  clay  products,  72. 

Fire   hose,    219. 

Firemen,    122,    123,   128,   160. 

Firing,  122. 

First-aid,*  41,  112. 


4i8 


Fischer  (and  Summerfeld),  9. 

Fish-glue,  168,  326. 

Fish-oil,  331. 

Fitting  (shoes),  325. 

Flags,  regalia,  badges,  etc.,  82. 

Flames,  121. 

Flashing  lights,   205. 

Flat  foot,  35,  101,  273. 

Flat  work,   194. 

Flavor   (-ing),  282,  288. 

Flavoring  extracts,  66. 

Flax,  flaxseed,  177,  340. 

Flaying,  348. 

Fleecing,  328,   329. 

Fleshing,  317. 

Flies,  273,  274,  277,  278,  348. 

Flint,   18,   229,   231,   245. 

Flour,  78,  254,  273,  316. 

Flying  particles,*  41,  112. 

Folders,  194,  195. 

Font  dust,   186. 

Food    (dining  cars),  292. 

Foot-and-mouth   disease,  42,   348. 

"Foot-drop,"  380. 

Foot-lever  (-treadle),  195,  196. 

Fordyce,  Dr.  O.  O.,  399. 

Foreign  particles    (eyes),*  122,  158,  205, 

249. 
Foremen,   109,   110,  403. 
Forge   (s,  -ers,  -ing,  -dust,  -gases),  124, 

125,  136,  147,  148,  149,  150,  298. 
Form,  blank,  for  reporting,  6,  111,   112. 
Foul  nature  of  work,  335. 
Founding   (brass),  129,  132,  135,  182. 
Founding   (iron),  129,  135. 
Foundry    (-ing),   66,   123,   135,    136,   143, 

201. 
"Four    Cases    of    Sudden    Death    in    a 

-Silo,"  393. 
Friction  heat,  298. 
Friction   smoke,   217. 
Frictioning    (rubber),  211. 
Frit  (-ting),  238,  269,  270. 
Fuller's  earth,  340. 
Fulminate  of  mercury,  346. 
Fumes.* 

Furs   and   fur  goods,   67,    179. 
Furnace   (s,  -ing),  50,  76,   123.   130,' 136, 

157,  157,  188,  268,  269,  309,  341. 
Furniture,  67,  167,  378. 
Furunculosis  from  oil,  98,   (147). 


Fuses,  electric,  344,  346. 

Galvanizing,  67,  153,  154,  155,  316. 

Gardner,- H.  A.,  172. 

Garbage,  349. 

Garments,  men's,   178. 

Garme'Uts,  women's,   178. 

Gas    (-es)    and  gas  fumes.     See  O.   C* 

Gas-bacillus  infection,  348. 

Gas    (fuel,    and    illuminating),*    42,    67, 

74,  121,  126,  186. 
Gas  helmets,  122,  279,  280. 
Gas-jets    (-flames),  228,  230,  327. 
Gasoline  {see  also  P.),  42,  74,  196. 
Gas   producers    (-ing),    121,    293,    294. 
Gases,   silo,   analyses  of,  397. 
"Gassing"    {see   also    P.),    122,    196. 
Gastritis,    gastric    catarrh    {see   also    O. 

G.),  49,  154,  349. 
Gastro-enteritis,    301. 
Gatherers    (pottery),   240. 
Gelatine,  347. 

General   processes,    112,    116,   117. 
Generator  gas,  121. 
German    Imperial    Regulations,    350. 
Germs  and  infections,*  39. 
"Getting  in  training,"  35. 
"Get  used  to,"  11,  12,  43, 
Gild   (s,  -ers,  -ing),  176,  250,  253. 
Glanders,  42,  348. 
Glare,  112,  260. 
Glass  {see  also  D.),  68,  84,  143,  163,  173, 

205,  256,  262,  265,  343. 
Glass,  amber,  338. 
Glasses  {see  also  Goggles),*  196. 
Glaze  dipping,  mixing,  229,  238,  239,  240. 
Glazed  ware,  247. 
Glaziers   (-ing),  168.  269,  298,  345. 
Glost-kilns,  239,  240,  244. 
Gloves*,  -42,  46,   112,   191,   198,   215.  210, 

222,  224,  265,  332. 
Glue  (-ing),  167.  168,  347,  348,  349. 
Glycerine.     See  P. 
Goggles,*  42,  112,  266. 
Goldmark,  Josephine,  9. 
Gold  stripes  (liners),  250,  253. 
Gouty,  38. 
Graining,  190. 
Grain  vessels,  399. 
Granulated  eyelids.     5rr  Trachoma. 
Granulating  pits,  302. 
Graphite,  163,  345. 


419 


Greases,  157,  177,  318,  320,  339,  340,  347. 
"Greenware"  (pottery),  234,  239,  247. 
Green  window-panes,  204. 
Grind    (-ers,    -ing),    163,    174,    184,    229, 

231,  269,  270,  294,  295,  298,  334,  335, 

342,  343,  344,  345,  349,  350. 
Grindstone  (s),  79,  268,  298. 
Grippe,  260. 

Grist  mill  products,  78,  254. 
Groins,  irritation  of,  337. 
Ground  laying,  250,  251. 
Guinea-pigs   (test  purposes),  396. 
Gum  drops,  274. 
Gum  resin,  172,  175,  350. 
Gum  tragacanth,  287. 
Gypsum,  347. 
Habit  (s),*  272,  287. 
Habituation,  43. 

Hair  (see  also  D.),  101,  346,  347. 
Half-tones,  190. 

Hall  (Textbook  of  Physiology),  10. 
Hallaner  glass,  151. 
Hammer-man's  paralysis,  301. 
Hammering,  299.  , 
Hand  blowing  (glass),  262. 
"Handicapped,  Study  of  the,"  13. 
Hand  grip   (te^t),  384. 
Hand  ironing,  195. 
Handlers  (pottery),  234. 
Handling   objects    (a   hazard),*   39,   112, 

178,  181,  192,  198,  213,  215,  216,  246, 

320,  324,  335,  337. 
Hand  mills,  313,  316. 
Hand  pads,  protectors,*  126,  315. 
Hand-painting,  250. 
Hangnails,  275. 
Hanson,  Wm.  C.,  M.  D.,  9. 
Hardening  (metals),  147. 
Hard  rubber,  219. 

Harrington    (Textbook  of  Hygiene),  10. 
Hartzell,  Josiah,  Ph.  D.,  1. 
Hats,  68,  199. 
Hay,  177. 

Hay  fever  tendencies,  272. 
Headache   (see  also  O.  C.),  23,  150,  153. 
"Head  drop,"  380. 
Health    (complaint  of).* 
Health  appliances,*  46,  110. 
Health  department   (function  of),  403. 
Health-hazard     (defined).    ]0,    .55,    111, 

112. 


Health  instructions,*  110. 

Health  register  (see  also  Sick  records), 
386. 

Hearing  (see  also  Deafness),  55,  126. 

"Hearsay"  case   (defined),  359. 

Heart  disease  (see  also  O.  D.),  13,  37, 
55,  61,  87,  88,  126,  128,  129,  142,  378, 
393. 

HEAT,*  29. 

Heat  (-ing)  (see  also  O.  C.),*  22,  29, 
32,  87,  88,  105,  112,  138,  158,  167, 
237,  276,  291. 

Heating- (of  silage),  398. 

Heat-toxins,  32,  405. 

Heavy  oils,  340. 

Helmets,  gas,  122,  279,  280. 

Hemorrhages,  800. 

Hemp,  179,  331,  332. 

Heredity,  89. 

Hernia,  55. 

Hides,  39,  317,  347. 

Historical  Notes,  1. 

Hoarseness,  260,  332. 

Hoffman,  Frederick  L.,  9,  332. 

"Hog  machine,"  332. 

Holmes  County  (hookworm  disease), 
97. 

Home  gardens,  112. 

Homicidal    characteristics,    224. 

Hoofs,  347. 

Hoof-and-mouth    disease,    42. 

Hookworm  disease,  42,  96,  97,  268,  296, 
298. 

Horns,  347. 

Hospitals,*  41,  55,  95,  112,  120,  139,  182, 
202,  343,  358. 

Hospitals   and  the   factory,   406. 

Hospital   Social   Service,   Cincinnati,    13. 

Hot  mill  processes,  309,  313. 

"House  of  manslaughter",  358. 

Housing    conditions,   42. 

Howell    (Textbook  of   Physiology),   10. 

Humidity,  humidifiers  (see  also  Damp- 
ness), 23,  25,  112,  168,-329,  339,  356. 

Husking,   276. 

Hydrogen  sulphide    (sec  also   P.),  42. 

"Hygiene   of  the   Boot   and    Shoe   In- 
dustry", 328. 

Hygrometer,  25,  206. 

Hysteria,  36. 

Ice  manufacture,  84,  278, 


420 


Ignorance,*  46,  90,  112,  247,  404. 
Illinois    Commission    on    Occupational 

Diseases,  406. 
Illinois,    effects   of   occupational    disease 

law  in,  406. 
Illiterates,  55. 
Illuminating   engineers,  21. 
Illuminating  oils,  339. 
Immoral  surroundings,  50,   112. 
INACTIVITY,*  38,  112. 
Impure  air*,  112. 
Incandescent  lamps,   204. 
Indigestion.     See  O.  C. 
Indisposition,   196. 
Indoor  shop  painters,  30,  168,  378. 
Industrial  appendicitis,  98. 
Industrial  Commission  (Ohio),  342,  401. 
Industrial  and  Communal  Typhoid  Fe- 
ver, 99. 
Industrial    health-hazards,    10,    17,    111, 

112. 
'"Industrial  Poisons,  List  of",  9,  42. 
'■"Industrial      Poisoning"      (Rambousek- 
Legge,"9,  350,  398. 

Industrial  relations,  121,  405,  406. 

Industrial   stimulantism,*   10,   50,  406. 

Industrial  tuberculosis,*  42,  89,  91,  120, 
360. 

Industrial  tj-phoid  fever,  99. 

Industry  (defined),  53,  405. 

Industries,   division  of,  51,   103. 

INFECTIONS,*  39,  41,  56,  90,  112,  143, 
287,  348. 

Influenza,  135. 

Information,  402. 

Ingredient  mixing  {see  also  Chemicals), 
256,  269. 

Injury,  personal,  2,  112,  260. 

Inks  {see  also  P.),  163,  190,  356. 

Inner  tube  making,  213,  218,  224.    ■ 

Innocent  bystanders,  291. 

Insanitary  conditions   {see  also  O.  C.),* 
347. 

Insanity,  See  O.  D. 

Insomnia,   {see  also  Sleep),  300. 

Inspecting,  117. 

Institutional  records,  405. 

Instructions,*  46,  112,  203,  243,  393,  401. 

Instruments    (professional,  scientific), 
68. 

Interest,    foremen,   109. 


International    Harvester    Machinery 

Company,  99. 
Intestinal  diseases,  129,  139,  192. 
Intoxication    (test,   evidence),  lead,  381, 

382. 
Intrinsic  poisoning,  50. 
Invalidism,   35. 
Investigations     (industrial    complaints), 

399,  406. 
Investigators,  53,  -359. 
Iodine,  191. 

Iron  dust    {see  also   D.),   18. 
Iron    and    steel    industry,    occupational 

diseases   of,   300. 
Iron   and   steel    (processes),   69,  82,  85, 

128,  155,  157,  300. 
Ironing    (-ers),    2-3,    181,    194,    195,   324, 

327,  359. 
Irregular  hours  of  work,*  260,  339. 
Irregular  hours  for  sleep,  38,  260. 
Irritation   (s),  24,  50,  120.  141,  150,  154, 

156,  178,  191,  287,  290,  318. 
Japans    (-ers,   -ing),   168,   174,   175,   319, 

350. 
Jarring  processes,*  38,   112,  126. 
Jaundice,  42,    153. 
Jellies,  278. 
.Jewelry,  69,  143. 
Jiggermen    (pottery),  234. 
Job  work  (printing),  185. 
Joiners    (-ing),  165,  329. 
Joint   Resolution,    establishing   the    Sur- 
vey, 3. 
JoUymen    (pottery),  234. 
Jones,   Dr.,   1. 
Junk,  69,  182. 
Jute,  78,  331.       " 
Keg  filling   (breweries),  282. 
Keg-washin?    (breweries),    282. 
Kentucky   (hookworm  disease),  96. 
Kettles,   280,  288,   351. 
Kidney  affections    {see  also  O.   D.),  36, 

87,  88,  129,  253. 
"Killing  pace,"  181. 
Kiln    (s,   -workers),    123,    173,  2"29,   239, 

268,  269,  293,  297. 
Kiln-room   laborers    (lead),  392. 
King.'F.  H.,  399. 
Knitting,   3-28,   329. 
Kober,   Geo.    M.,   M.   D..   9, 


421 


Label   (s,  -ers,  -ing),  167,  191,  200,  278, 

281,  282,  289,  350. 
Labor  Bulletin   (U.  S.)   No.  44,  -  350. 
Labor  Bulletin  (U.  S.)  Nos.  79,  82,  100, 

-  9. 
Labor  Bulletin  (U.  S.),  No.  86,  -  343. 
Labor  Bulletin   (U.  S.)   No.  95,  -  342. 
Laborers,  58,   378. 
Laborious  work,*  38,  112,  214,  231,  300, 

310. 
Lacquer  (-ers,  -ing),   (see  also  P.),  143, 

161,  168,  350. 
Lamp  black,  319. 
Landis,  Dr.,  171. 
Language,    50. 
Lapping    (rubber),   216. 
Lap   welding,   311. 
Lard  oil,  98. 
Lasting    (shoes),  326. 
Lathing,   144. 

Laundering,  86,  192,  194,  195. 
Law  Establishing  the  Survey,  etc.,  3. 
Law,  Health  Districts,  etc.,  407. 
Law,  Model,  for  Morbidity  Reports,  407. 
"Laws  of  Ohio  Relating  to  Occupational 

Disease    and    Industrial    Hygiene," 

343. 
Law,    Reporting    of    Occupational    Dis- 
eases,  4,   7,   342,   358. 
Law,    Special    Reference    to    Lead    Poi- 
soning, 7,  341,  342,  343,  358. 
Layman    for   health   officer,   94. 
Lead  (see  also  P.),*  42,  74,  133,  141,  169, 

176,   317. 
Lead  and  appendicitis,  98. 
Lead,  bar,  pipe  and  sheet,  69. 
Lead    burning,    151,    201,    202,    340,    343, 

349. 
Lead  colic   (see  also  O.  C.J,  2. 
Lead  fumes,*  69,  153,  378. 
Lead  in  urine,  test  for,  387. 
"Lead   line,"  .381,   383,   384. 
Lead-lined  tanks,  349. 
Lead  ornaments,   160. 
Leod  oxide,*  170,  201,  340,  342,  350. 
Lead   poisoning    (see  also   P.),  70,    139, 

153,  171,  173,  175,  205,  210,  213,  253, 

258,  378. 
Lead  poisoning,  acute,  diagosis  of,  380. 
Lead    poisoning,    chronic,    diagnosis    of, 

383, 


Lead   poisoning  —  a    personal    injury,   2. 
Lead    poisoning,    belittling    danger    of, 

243. 
"Lead    Poisoning — Diagnosis    and    Pre- 
vention," 378,  380. 
"Lead     Poisoning,     How     to     Prevent," 

(placard),  393. 
Lead  poisoning,  table  of   cases  of,  373. 
Lead  sulphide,  345. 
Lead  workers,  357,  392. 
Leather,  70,  317,  341. 
Leeching,  317. 
Leers    (glass),  258. 
Legge,  Dr.  Thos.  M.,  9,  398. 
Legislation    for   industrial   hygiene,   399, 

406,  407. 
Legislation,   specific,  401. 
Lettering,  265. 
Leucomaines,   34. 
Licorice,  287,  288. 
Lieberman's    intoxication    'test     (lead), 

381,  383,  384,  386. 
Life   insurance,  243,  260. 
Light    and    lighting,*    21,    22,    112,    126, 

150. 
Lime  (workers,  processes),  70,  293,  295, 

318,   339,   342,   348. 
Linen,  78,  331. 

Liners    (-ing)     (decorative),  250. 
Linoleum,   71,  355. 
Linotyping,    187. 

Linseed  oil  (see  also  Boiled  oil),  319. 
Lint.       See  D. 
Liquors,  malt,  280. 
"List  of   Industrial    Poisons,"    0. 
Listing   (laundry),  192. 
Litharge   (see  also  Lead),  257,  340,'  356. 
Litho-engravers,  176. 
Lithographing,  176,  356. 
Lithopone,  356. 
Litho-transf  erring,   191. 
"Liver  trouble,"  87,  88,  129. 
Lock-jaw.   13,  41,  42,   98.    147,   184,  332. 
Lockers,*  46,  110,  112. 
Lodging-houses,  94,  96. 
Log-wood,  319. 
Long  hours,*  38,  112,  183,  218,  260.  262. 

277,  279,  300,  338,  339. 
Loud  noises,*  36,  38,  112.- 
Loudonville    (Ohio),  97. 
Lubricating  oils,  339,  340, 


422 


Lucifer  matches,  343. 

Lumbago,  31,  35,  126,  129,  301,  315. 

Lumber  hands,  42,   165. 

"Luminous   Beam,   The,"   1. 

Lumpy  jaw,  42. 

Lunch    rooms.* 

Lung    diseases     (see    also     O.     D.     and 

Tuberculosis),  13,  129,  137,  163,  180, 

269,  295,  339. 
Machine  building   (tires),  212. 
Machine  ironing,  195. 
Machine  operations,  routine,   117. 
Machine    shopping,    machinists,    66,    129, 

134,  136,  143,  145,  148,  150,  152,  155, 

165,  169,  313,  357. 
Magnesite,    307. 
Mahoganj^  67. 

^lalignant  pustule  (anthrax),  348. 
Malt    liquors     (see    also    Brewing),    86, 

280. 
Manganese    (see  also   P.),   133. 
^Mangling,    194. 
Maniacal  symptoms,  224,  379. 
Manilla  hemp,  331. 
Manipulating  mixer,  347,  349. 
Manure,  98,  Ml. 

Marble    (see  also   Stone),   79,  265,   266. 
Marking   (laundry),  192,  194. 
Marshmallows,   274. 
Masons,  101. 
Massachusetts    State    Board    of    Health 

Bulletin,   328. 
Matches,  70,  343. 
!Matchworker's    disease,    2. 
Mats,   196. 

Mattresses,   79,    181,   333. 
AlcCampbell,  E.  R,  M.  D.,  8. 
Measles,    147. 

Mechanical   goods    (rubber"),   219. 
Mechanical  protection,*  112. 
Mechanics    (statistics),   58. 
Median  age  at  death.    See  Age. 
Medical  school  supervision,  267. 
Medical  supervision,  42,  46,  56,  112,  315. 

385. 
Meltzer    apparatus,    42,    47,    48,    399. 
Mending,   328,   330. 
?^fenorrhagia.  287. 
Mental  alertness,  55. 
Mental  deterioration,  dullness,  122,  222. 

800, 


Merchant    (lead  poisoning),  358. 

Mercuric   sulphide,   74. 

Mercury  (see  also  P.),  42,  69,  82. 

"Metal  chills,"  156. 

Metal  grinding,   129,   134,   135,   143,   146. 

148,   150,  313. 
"Metal    poisoning,"    135. 
Metal  polishers.    See  Polishers. 
Metals,  non-ferrous   (or  soft),  133,  135, 

143,  149,  173,  182,  183,  187,  188. 
Metals,  refining,  182. 
Methane,  340.  397. 
Methods,  modern,*  109. 
Metol,    191. 
Middlings,  157. 
Migraine,   56. 
Migration     (affecting    morbidity    rates), 

15. 
Miles,  Dr.  Manly,  393. 
Milk  (for  lead  workers),  353. 
Milk  sickness,  42. 
Millers.  89. 

Mills   (rubber),  206,  208. 
Mineral  dust  (see  also  D.),*  18. 
Mineral  oil,  171,  267,.  385. 
Miners,  14,  100,  101,  357. 
Mirrors,  70,  270. 
Misbranding-,  46,  112. 
Mittens,  38. 

Mixing  chemicals  (see  also  Chemicals),* 
.       347. 
Mixing    ingredients     (sec    also    Mixing 

chemicals).*  256,  269,  344,  356,  379. 
Mixing  mills  (rubber),  206.  208. 
Mixing  (tobacco),  288.  289. 
"Modern  Factory,  The,"  9. 
Moistening,  282,  331. 
Moisture    particles,    26. 
Mold  (s),  215,  225,  233,  234,  262. 
Mold  boys.  234,  236. 
Mold   runners,  234. 
JNIolders    (sec   also    Founding),    66.    128, 

296. 
Mold  making   (pottery).  233. 
Molders  Union,  Vital  statistics,  128. 
Monotony  (see  also  O.  C.).*  38.  39,  69, 

104.  112. 
Monuments,  79.  26-5. 
Monotyping.  187. 
Morals.  21.  50.  112. 
Morbidity  statistics.     See  Vital  statistics. 


4^3 


Morbidity  migration,  15. 
"Mortality    from    Consumption    in    Cer- 
tain Occupations,"  9. 
"Mortality  from  Consumption  in  Dusty 

Trades,"  9. 
Mortalit}'    (occupied  males),   14. 
"Mortality  Statistics,"  General    (U.   S.), 

14. 
Mosaic  effects,  254. 
Moss,   177. 

Mottling,  239,  250,  319. 
Motorcycles,  etc.,  60. 
Mouth    (-ing,  of  articles),  41,   112,  260, 

287,  288,  289,  320,  355. 
Muckers,  101. 
Muck-rolling,    307. 
Mud  guns,  804.  -  • 

Mules,   313. 
Muscular  cramps    (see  also   O.   C),  29, 

35. 
Medical  instruments,  etc.,  70. 
Mustaches,*  46,   112,  202,  208,  210,  257. 
Myopia.     See  O.  D. 
Nail-files   (-brushes),  244,  352,  385. 
Naphtha   (see  also  P.),  42,  74,  171,  181, 

196. 
Naphthalin,  122. 
Napping,  328,  329. 

Nasal  irritation.     See  Nose  affections. 
Nasal   septum,  perforation   of,  258,  290. 
National      Acme     Manufacturing      Co., 

Cleveland,  98. 
Nausea    (see   also   O.   C),  49,   128,   154, 

170,  177,   192,  271.  275,  320. 
Necator  Americanus,  07. 
Necropsies    (carbon    dioxide    asphyxia), 

396,  397. 
Nephritis.     See  Bright's  disease. 
"X^ervous  breakdown"   (see  also  O.  C), 

36,  192.  389. 
Nervous    diseases    (see   also    O.    C.   and 

O.  D.),*  13,  153. 
Neuralgia,  35. 
Neurasthenia,  36,  196,  224. 
Neuritis,  35,  129,  130,  182,  359. 
Neurosis   (-es).  147,  182,  299,  359. 
New  England  States  (tuberculosis),  401. 
New  workers,  285. 
New  York  Subway  (disaster).  160. 
Nickel,  133,  141,  163. 
N^ichols,  Hugh  L.,  Prcs.  of  Senate,  4,  5. 
Nichols,  Rov  T.,  15. 


Night  work,*  37. 

Nigrisin,  319. 

Nitric  acid.     See  P. 

Nitrogen  (see  also  P.),  398. 

Nitrogenous  substances,  347. 

Nitroglycerine,  344,  346. 

Noise    (s),*  36,   139,  147,   166,  310,  315, 

316,  329,  332;  333,  336. 
Nomenclature    (occupational),  405. 
Non-ferrous  metals.     See  Metals. 
Noon   recess.* 

Nose  affections    (see   also    O.    C),   287, 

290,  295. 
Nurse  (s),  41,  95. 
Nut  preparation,  273. 
Nystagmus  (see  also  O.  D.),  23. 
O.ak,  67,  167,  317. 
Occupational   (defined),  405. 
Occupational    complaints,    recording    of, 

120,  357. 
Occupational    complaints    reported. 

(See  also  Occupational  diseases.) 

Acid  (s),  exposure  to,  144,  153,  162, 
203,  264,  265,  267,  270,  318,  349. 

Alkali  (s),  271. 

Appetite,  loss  of,  153,  216,  221,  228, 
253,  271,  275,  287,  353. 

Backache,  181. 

Benzine  fumes,  "jags,"  212,  213, 
216,  218,  221,  226. 

Bladder  affections,  171,  173,  353. 

Bone  dust  fever,  349. 

Brass  chills,  135. 

Breathing,  difficulty  in,  162,  294,334, 
349. 

Breathing  of  dust,  131,  139,  141,  144, 
167,  171,  175,  178,  181,  183,  186, 
208,  210,  217,  231,  232,  233,  238, 
239,  243,  247,  249,  258,'  264,'  266^ 
269,  271,  296,  (297),  332,  334, 
335,  349,  358,   (855). 

Breathing  of  gas  (-es),  fumes, 
sprays  or  vapors,  122,  (124), 
126,  128,  131,  139,  144,  149,  150, 
153,  154,  156,  158,  162,  (164), 
167,  170,  173,  175,  176.  182.  186, 
189;  190,  199,  200,  203,  205,  208, 
210,  212,  213,  221,  224,  225,  226, 
228,  264,  265,  271,  282,  293,  300, 
312,  325,  344,  349,  353,  (355), 
856. 


424 


Occupational      complaints      reported  — 
Continued. 
Breathing    smoke,    r22,     (124).    131, 

139,  217,  282,  812. 
Bronchitis,    131,    139,    167,    191,    260, 

300,  302,  345. 
Burns,  129,  158,  205,  265. 
Calluses,  205. 
Catarrhs     (various),    135,    260,    266, 

349. 
Closets     (various    complaints),    128, 

131,  247,  260. 
Cocobola  wood,  167. 
Cold    and    draft    exposure,     (123), 

(124),    129,    149,   237,   238,    241, 

260,  262,  282. 
Colds,   126,   162,   181,   221,   260,   266, 

308,  320,  334,  337,  339,  349. 
Colic,  202,  215,  315. 
Coughs,  coughing,  122,  126,  144,  153, 

154,  162,  178,  181,  221,  225,  228, 

258,  265,  272,  316,  320,  332,  334, 

335,  339,  349. 
Cramps,  131,  215. 
Cyanide  ulcers,  162. 
Dampness    of    work    quarters,    129, 

182,  231,  232,  238,  262,  267,  281, 

282,  296  (297),  339. 
Danger,  144,  305,  306,  307,  311. 
Deafness  and  impaired  hearing,  126, 

139,  162,  332. 
Diarrhoeal  attacks,  131. 
Digestive  disturbances,  122,  135, 144, 

153,  171,  173,  210,  224,  265,  269, 

271,  285,  287,  288,  289,  302,  315, 

339,  346,  349,  353,  (355). 
Dizziness,    122,    162,    171,    173,    175, 

213,  216,  221,  228,  265,  287,  300, 

345^  353,   (355). 
Drinking  water   (too  cold),  131. 
Dyspepsia.      See    Digestive    disturb- 
ances. 
Ear   affections,    139,   332.     See   also 

Deafness. 
"Epidemics,"   135,   171. 
Eve    affections.    122,    150,    153,    181, 

(186),    196,    204,   205,   225,    228, 

249,  253,  272,  287,  294,  299,  300, 

315,  334,  343,  353. 
Fainting,  218,  221,  273,  285. 


Occupational      complaints     reported  — 
Continued. 

Fatigue    (see   also    Tiredness),    154, 
(181),    182,    193,    196,    228,   231, 
2-38,  287. 
Feet    (various   affections),  258,  279, 

281,  337. 

Female    complaints,    196,    285,    287, 

289. 
Foreign  particles   in   eyes,   122,   153, 

205,  249. 
Gloves,  absence  of,  332. 
Glue  odors,  168. 
Hazards    of    other    processes,    126, 

139,  167. 
Headache,    126,    128,    162,    181,    196, 

205,  218,  218,  221,  254,  265,  287, 

288,  289,  300,  343,  345,  346,  349, 

353  (355). 
Heat,  subjection  to,  122,  123,   (124), 

149,    154,    (164),    182,    193,    196, 

215,  226,  231,  238,  247,  260,  262, 

282,  292,  300,  302,  305,  306,  307, 
308,  311,  312,  315,  320. 

Heating,  inefficient,  131,  158,  167, 
237. 

Humidity.     S^^  Dampness. 

Indigestion.  See  Digestive  disturb- 
ances. 

Indisposition,  196,   (221),  285. 

Insanitary     conditions,     120,     (123), 

(124),  (129),  131,  139,  144,  147, 

(164),    170,    171,    177,    183,   231, 

232,  233,  239,  243,  247,  249,  260, 

■      296,  (297),  320. 

Instructions,  lack  of,  243. 

Irregular  work  hours,  260,  338. 

Jarring  processes,  126. 

Kidney  affections  (sec  also  Bladder, 
Urinary),  171,  173,  253. 

"Killing  Pace,"  181. 

Laborious  work,  305,  311. 

Lead  exposure,  153,  186,  270,  264, 
343. 

Life  insurance,  difficulty  in  secur- 
ing, 243,  260. 

Light,  excessive,  126. 

Long  hours,  123,  183,  217.  260,  262, 
279,  339. 

Loss  of  time,  due  to  sickness,  158. 

Lower  limb  affections,  196. 


'425 


"tccupational      complaints      -eported  — 

Continued. 

Lumbago,  r2G,  130,  315. 

Lung  affections  {see  also  Bron- 
chitis), 129,  137,  139,  173,  269, 
339. 

"Metal  chills,"  156. 

Monotony,  144. 

Nausea  {see  also  Digestive  disturb- 
ances), 153,  210,  221,  265,  287, 
326,  327,  343,  349,  353. 

"Nervous  breakdown,"  nervousness, 
182,  228,  287,  288. 

Neuritis,  130. 

Night  blindness,  150. 

Noise,  excessive,  126,  131,  147. 

Nose  affections,  135,  139,  153,  154, 
162,  191,  258,  271,  287,  335,  337. 

Nose-bleed,  258. 

Oak  fumes,  167. 

OdQrs,  128,  168,  182,  190,  210,  226, 
275,  326,  346. 

Oils  (s),  149,  332. 

Pains  (various),  130,  153,  265,  269, 
334,  349. 

Paints   (new  solvents),  171. 

Palpitation,  287,  288,  353. 

Personal  carelessne'ss,  171. 

Pigmentations,  191. 

Pneumonia,  260. 

Rest  intervals,  lack  of,  181. 

Rheumatism,  122,-  126,  129,  131,  144, 
182,  232,  260,  279,  282,  299,  302, 
308,  315,  337,  339. 

Sciatica,  130. 

Sickness    (not  specified)*. 

Skin  affections,  141,  144,  173,  191, 
200,  221,  253,  266,  271,  275,  294, 
300,  315,  318,  332,  337,  339,  353, 
(355). 

Sleeping,  2G0,  338,  353. 

Span  of  trade  life,  260. 

Sparks,  150. 

Standing  constantly,  332. 

Steam,  subjection  to,  158,  167,  182, 
200,  839,  342. 

Stiffness,  130,  299. 

Stupor,  stupefaction,  213,  218. 

Sunday  work,  279. 

"Swelling    up",    122. 

28*  0.  D. 


Occupational     Complaints     reported  — 
(Concluded). 
Temperature  changes,  (123),   (124), 

129,  237,  303. 
Throat  affections,  129,  135,  139,  153, 

154,  162,  191,  205,  218,  225,  260, 

267,  271,  316,  318,  332,  335,  337, 

343,  349. 
Tiredness,  216,  221,  253,  273. 
Trembling,  353. 
Tuberculosis,  180,  260. 
Turpentine  exposure,   171,   173,  253, 

356. 
"Typhoid    fever",   299. 
Urinary    affections,    176.      See    also 

Kidney  and   Bladder. 
Varnish  exposure,  173. 
Ventilation    provisions,    faulty,    131, 

141,    144,    153,    158,    (164),    167, 

171,  175,  177,  181,  186,  189,  199. 

238,  334. 
Washing   facilities.      Sec    Insanitary 

conditions. 
Weakness,  253. 
Weight,    loss    of,   221. 
Wood  alcohol,  exposure  to,  205,  325, 

326,   327. 
Wry  neck,   130. 
Zinc  chills,   156. 
"Occupational   Diseases"',  9. 
Occupational    diseases,    non-specific,    50, 

400,  401. 
Occupational     Diseases    reported     {sec 
also    Occupational    complaints ;    also 
Part    VI.). 
Acid  burns,  203,  265. 
Alkali   dust  poisoning,  258,    (271). 
Anemia  (various  diseases),  122,  147, 

152,  172,  173,  175,  176,  J86,  191, 

199,  203,  213,  216,  218,  224,  226. 

231,  253,  273,  288,  289, '291,  294, 

300,  315,  318,  320. 
.Animal  infections,   (320). 
Anilin   poisoning,   189,  208,   210  . 
Anthracosis,    (100). 
Antimony  poisoning,  189. 
Anthrax,  97,    (381),   348. 
Apoplexy,   186,  318. 
Appendicitis,  120,  380. 
Arsenic  poisoning,   (153), 
Arsine  poisoning,    (153). 


426 


Occupational        Diseases        reported^ 

Continued. 

Arterial   affections,    (186). 

"Beat  hand",    (100). 

Benzine  dermatitis,  135,  219. 

Benzine  poisoning,  171,  173,  175,  199, 
•216,  219,  221,  253,  353. 

Benzol  poisoning,  221,  224. 

Bichromate  poisoning,   192. 

Bladder    affections,    171. 

Bleeding  fingers,  171. 

Blindness,  124,  150,  192. 

Blood  poisoning,  192,  324. 

Bloody  urine,    (153). 

Boiler  makers'  deafness,  147,  301. 

Boils,    (see  furunculosis). 

Brass  chills,  135,  150. 

Brass  itch,   135,   144. 

Brass   poisoning,    139,    144. 

Brass   rash,   147. 

Brazier's  disease,  150. 

Breathing,  difficulty  in,  153,  294,  334, 
349. 

Bright's  Disease,  318. 

Bronchitis,  131,  135,  139,  144,  156, 
171,    189,  267,  302,  332,  345. 

Burns,  139,  156,  203,  205,  343. 

"Butcher's   wart",    (348). 

Caisson  disease,  101. 

Calluses,  205,  300,  316,  324. 

Cancer,    (151),  203,    (340). 

Carbon  bisulphide  poisoning,  224. 

Carbon   dioxide  poisoning,   393. 

Carbon   monoxide   poisoning,   172. 

Carbon  tetrachloride  poisoning,  224. 

"Carpenter's  stoop",  166. 

Cataract,  124,  150,  260,  300. 

Chancre,  260. 

Cheeks,   dilatation   of,   260. 

Cirrhosis    (lungs),  100. 

Color  sense  affections,   150. 

Compressed  air  illness.  See  Cais- 
son. 

Conjunctivitis,  120,  139,  150,  264, 
267,  300. 

Consumption.     Sec   tuberculosis. 

Cramps,  131. 

Cyanamide  poisoning,  .349. 

Cyanide  poisoning,   192. 

Cyanide  ulcers,   162. 

Dancing  pupils,   100,   181. 


Occupational   Diseases  reported  —  Con- 
tinued. 

Deafness,  139,  147,  301,  315,  316, 
332. 

Deaths.  (See  also  Vital  Statistics), 
122,  149,  192,  262,  270. 

Debility,   300. 

Deformities,    (273). 

Degenerative    diseases,    192. 

Dermatitis,  120,  149,  171,  173,  175, 
189,  210,  212,  219,  224,  258,  267, 
292,  328,  340,  356. 

Diarrhoea,   131,  300. 

Digestive  disturbances.  See  Occu- 
pational  Complaints. 

Ear  disease,  100.  (See  also  Deaf- 
ness). 

Eczema,  135,  162, '212. 

Emaciation,  173. 
.    Emphysema,   (100). 

Empyema,  139. 

"Epidemics",  135,  171. 

Epithelioma.      Sec    Cancer. 

Erysipelas,   192,    (348). 

Eye  affections,  92,  124,  150,  157,  173, 
181,  186,  192,  196,  205,  260,  264, 
267,  287,  292,  294,  299,  300,  315, 
331,  340,  343. 

Female   disorders,    (273),   289. 

Ferro-silicon  poisoning,    (301). 

(Flat-foot),    (273). 

Flushed   faces,   173. 

Foot    affections.      See    Skin    affec- 
tions. 

Foot-and-mouth   disease,    (348). 

Furunculosis,  98. 

Gall   bladder   affections.    (196). 

Gas  bacillus  infection,  (348). 

Gassing,  122,  172,  300,  303,  310. 

Glanders,    (348). 

Granulated  eye-lids.     See  trachoma. 

Hair,  turning  color  of,  177. 

"Hammerman's   paralysis",  301. 

Hay  fever,  272. 

Heart  affections,  186,  285,  287,  301, 
318. 

Heat  affections.  131.  195,  260,  262, 
300,  308,  315. 

Hoarseness,  332. 

Homicidal   characteristics.  224. 


427 


Occupational   Diseases  reported  —  Con- 

tiniieil. 

Hookworm  disease,  (9G),  (1"0), 
(268),    Vim),     (298). 

Hydroflouric   acid  burns,  2(15. 

Infections.* 

Insanity,  224,    (228),  300. 

Jaundice,   1->1 

Kidney  affections,   171,   173. 

Lead  poisoning,  139,  144,  149,  153, 
158,  1U4,  171,  173,  175,  183,  18G, 
189,  191,  202,  208,  210,  232,  239, 
243,  247,  249,  253,  258,  (264), 
269,  270,  299,  320,  342,  343,  353, 
355,  356,  392. 

Lock-jaw,    (98),    184,    (332). 

Lung  diseases  (not  otherwise  spec- 
ified), KHi,  162,  300,  331. 

Malignant  pustule,  (348). 

Mental    deterioration,    122,   224. 

"Metal  chills",  156. 

"Miner's    elbow",    (100). 

Myopia.     See   Eye   affections. 

Naptha    poisoning.     See    Benzine"' 

Nephritis.      See    Kidney    affections. 

Nervous  affeqtions,  139,  147,  160, 
■    182,   (196),  224,  289,  299,  301. 

Neurasthenia.  See  Nervous  affec- 
tions. 

Night  blindness,   150. 

Nitric   acid    (inhalation),    160. 

Nitroso-nitric  acid  (inhalation). 
160. 

Nose  affections,  135,  173,  264,  295, 
335,   337. 

Nystagmus,  100,  181. 

Ophthalmia  electrica,  150. 

Pallor.     See  Anemia. 

Paralysis,  182,  208,  224,  (228),  243, 
318. 

Perforated    nasal    septum,    258,   290. 

Phthisis,  (100^  See  also  Tuber- 
culosis. 

Pleurisy,    (100). 

Pneumonia,  (100),  139,  153,  160, 
(238),   (260),  (267),  318,  (349). 

Pneumonoconiosis,   332. 

Poisoning,  chronic,*   164,  192. 

Potassium  cyanide,  149. 

Prematurely  aged,  231,  299,  300. 

Presenility,  186,  231,  299. 


Occupational   Diseases  reported  —  Con- 
cluded. 

Pyorrhoea,   154,   156,  299. 

Rheumatism,  129,  131,  279,  282,  299, 
301,  303,  308,  315,  387,  339. 

Rhinitis.     See  Nose  affections. 

Salivary  disturbances,  260. 

"Sickly  appearing."* 

Siderosis,    139. 

Skin  affections,  131,  147,  151,  156, 
177,  191,  203,  267,  (275),  292, 
2y3,  294,  300,  315,  318,  328,  33il, 
337. 

Spinal  affections,    (122). 

Sterility,   ^151). 

"Striker's  arthritis,"  301. 

Suicidal    characteristics,    224. 

Sulphur  chloride  poisoning,  224. 

Syphilis,   260. 

"Sun  burning,"  150,  300,  315. 

Teeth,  destruction  of,  154,  156,  275, 
299,  345. 

Tetanus.     See  Lock-jaw. 

Throat  affections,  135,  267,  335,  337, 
343,  849. 

Tobacco  poisoning,  285,  287,  289. 

Trachoma,  92,  100. 

Tuberculosis,  90,  92,  101,  120,  139, 
147,  153,  1'54,  171,  173,  183,  186, 
190,  192,  203,  238,  256,  (260), 
267,  273,  278,  285,  287,  291,  300, 
318,  828,  329,  332,  834,  8^5,  387. 

Turpentine  poisoning,  171,  173,  175, 
356.' 

Typhoid  fever,  99,  100,  (268),  (299), 
(348). 

Ulcers,  156,  162,   (196). 

Urinary  affections  (see  also  Blad- 
der), 153,  176. 

Varnish  poisoning,  171,  253. 

Venereal  diseases,   (215),  260. 

Wood  alcohol  poisoning,  171. 

Wool  sorter's  disease,    (331). 

Yeast  dermatitis,    (317). 

Zinc  chills,  156,  242. 

Zinc  poisoning,  158,  208. 
Occupational    diseases,    reporting   of,   7. 
Occupational    diseases,    specific,    42,    50, 

400,  405. 
Occupational  neuroses,  35. 
Occupational    poisonings,*    43,    46. 


428 


Occupied  males,  mortality  among,  14, 
404. 

Oculist,  151. 

Odors,*  49,  50. 

Offspring    (lead-workers),  379. 
.  Ogle,    Dr.    Wm.,    1,    101. 

Ohio    State    University,    392,    394. 

Oil  (-ers,  -ing,  -s)  (see  also  P.),  34, 
39,  71,  112,  147,  164,  168,  171,  189, 
207,  317,  331,  385. 

Oil-blast   furnaces,   50. 

Oilcloth,  71,  355. 

Oil,  mineral,  171,  339,  384. 

Oil  refining,  163,  339,  340,  347.  . 

Old  age,  29,  36,  87. 

Old  rubber,  228. 

Oliver,  Sir  Thomas,  9,  33,  299. 

Open  hearth  furnaces,  workers,  58,  306, 
307,  309. 

Opening    (cordage),  331. 

Ophthalmia  electrica,   150. 

Ordering    (tobacco),    288. 

Ore   (s),  18,  343. 

Organic  dusts,*  18,  348. 

Organic   heart   disease    (see   Heart    dis- 
ease). 

Other  processes  (a  hazard).* 

Overcrowding,*  39,  90. 

Overitis,    120. 

Ovens.     See  Kilns,  Drying  ovens. 

Overlock  Tuberculosis   Agreement,   401. 

Overtime,*  277. 

Oxygen,  27,  132,  397,  398. ' 

Oxygen  apparatus,  122,  132. 

Oxyhydrogen  blow-pipe.  See  Blow- 
pipes. 

Oxyhydrogen  welding,  150. 

Packing  (special  forms),  117,  255,  271, 
278,  283,  285,  289,  290,  294,  346,  351. 

Pains.    See  O.  C. 

Paint  (s,  -ing)    (see  also  P.),  26,  27,  30, 
31,  33,  37,   146,   163,   165,   168,   171, 
172,  174,  177,  205,  239,  263,  265,  269, 
350,  357,  385. 
■Paint  and  varnish,  71,  350,  354,  378. 

Paint-dipping,  250. 

Painters  (in  shops),  30,  378. 

Paint  Manufacturers'  Association  Bul- 
letin,  172. 

Painters'  Union,  Chicago  (Vital  Statis- 
tics),  383. 


"Paint    Vapors,    Composition    of,"    172. 

Paint  removers,  170. 

Palm   oil,   157,   158. 

Pale   (pallor).     See  Anemia. 

Palpitation   (see  also  O.  C),  300. 

Palsy.     See  Paralysis. 

Pamphlets  on  occupational  diseases,  etc., 

3. 
Paper    and    paper    goods,    80,    163,    182, 

183,  336. 
Paraffin,  144,  186,  339,  340,  346. 
Paralysis    (see  also   O.   D.),   35,  87,  88, 

102,  299,  359,  380. 
"Past  cases"    (defined),  359. 
Paste    (-ers,  -ing,  s),  28,  167,  201,  202, 

254. 
Pasteurizing,    282. 
Pastries,  272. 
Patent-leather,  319,  328. 
Patent  medicines,  etc.,  71. 
Pattern  making,  129,  165. 
Patterson,  H.  J.,  394. 
Peanut  shells,  157. 
Peat  pits,  399. 
Peeling,  276. 

Pensions    (sickness,  old  age,  death).* 
Pemphigus,  42. 

Perforated  nasal  septum,  258,  290. 
Perfumes,  163,  270,  271. 
Periodic  examination*,  47. 
Personal  cleanliness*,  46,  110. 
"Personal  injury",  2,   112. 
Petrol    (see  also  Benzine),  42,  74,   120, 

339. 
Petroleum,  339,  340. 
Phenol,  144. 

Phosphatic  minerals,  347. 
Phosphorus  (see  also  P.),  42,  133. 
Photography,  163,  176,  191. 
Photo-engravers'  Union,  191. 
Photo-engraving,  72,  163,  190. 
Photometry,  205. 
Phthisis,  18,  300. 
Physical    examinations,*    11,   42,   55,   95, 

112,  315. 
Physical  exercise,  39. 
Physician    (s)*    41,    54,    106,    110,    202, 

219,  343,  358,  403 
Picking   (textiles),  328,  329. 
Pickling.  148,  153,  155,  156,  157,  159,  174, 
276,  309,  313. 


429 


Pictures,  questionable,  50. 

Piecing   (textiles),  328. 

Piece-work*,  37,  38,  112. 

Pieraccini's  vicious  circle,  353. 

Pigments,  pigmentation,   173,   191. 

Pipe    (drainage,  sewer),  296. 

"Pit,,  the",    (rubber  works),  214. 

Pitch,  203,  282,  333. 

Placards    of    instruction*,   42,    110,    353, 

393. 
"Place"    (defined),  54. 
Plague.  41.  ,        • 

Planing  (metals),  144. 
"Plant"    (defined),  54. 
Plastei-of-Paris,    233,    234. 
Plate  mill,  311. 
Platforms,  196. 
Platinum   wire,   346. 
Plating.     See  Electro plafing. 
Pleurisy,    55. 
Plug  tobacco,  288.    , 
Plumbism.     See  Lead  poisoning. 
Pneumatic   riveters,   147. 
Pneumatic  tampers,  131,  132,  301. 
Pneumatic  tools,  139,  266,  301. 
Pneumonia  {see  also  O.  D.),  28,  39,  61, 

87,  88,   126,   128,   137,   142,  260,  301, 

383. 
Pneumonoconiosis,  18,  332,  405. 
POISONS,  42. 
Poison   (-ing,  s)*,  12,  16,  36,  38,  46,  59, 

103,  112. 
Poisons,  fatigue,  34,  36,  38,  39. 
Poisons    reported    as    occupational    haz- 
ards {see  also  Part  VI). 

Acetone,  172,  176,  199. 

Acids   (not  specified),  120,  144,  152, 
154,  159,  162,  202,  229,  264,  318. 

Acids,  acetic,   152,  191,  265. 

Acid,  carbolic,  144,  265. 

Acids,  fatty,  271. 

Acid,    formic,    172. 

Acid,    hydrochloric,     152,    158,    191, 
203,  264,  340,  343,  849,  350. 

Acid,  hydrocyanic,  397. 

Acid,  hydroflouirc,  264,  349,  350. 

Acid,  nitric,   114,   158,   160,   177,   191, 
270,  350. 

Acid,    nitroso-nitric     (nitrous),    160, 
349. 

Acid,  oxalic,  26G. 


Poisons    reported    as    occupational    haz- 
ards —  Continued. 

Acid,  phosphate,  347. 

Acid,  stearic,  271,  320. 

Acid,  sulphuric,  149,  154,  158,  264, 
280,  316,  318,  340,  343,  347,  350. 

Acid,  tartaric,  270. 

Alcohol,  191,  288. 

Aldehydes,  172. 

Alkalis  (not  specified),  120,  154,  160, 
162,  229,  271. 

Alkaloidal  woods,  166. 
'       Alloys  (not  specified),  143,  151,  183. 

Alum,  144,  337,  339. 

Ammonia,  122,  167,  176,  207,  221, 
279,  280,  282,  288,  328,  340,  342, 
356,  397. 

Ammonium  bichromate,  191. 

Ammonium  chloride.  See  Sal  am- 
moniac. 

Ammonium  phosphate,  348. 

Ammonium  sulphate,  348. 

Amyl  acetate,  120,  144,  172,  174,  176, 
265,  319. 

Amyl  compounds,  328,  353. 

Anaesthetics,  289. 

Anilin  dyes,  67,  200,  221,  291,  319, 
337,  344,  356. 

Anilin    (oil),  177,  186,  189,  207,  200. 

Antimony,  135,  174,  186,  189,  206, 
208,  213,  226,  257. 

Autotoxins,  180. 

Arsenic,  153,  176,  191,  200,  242,  252, 
257,  318. 

Asphaltum,   170,  339. 

Banana  oil,  172. 

Basic  slag,  349,  350. 

Benzine,  120,  144,  (104),  171,  173, 
174,  175,  176,  177,  181,  186,  189, 
196,  199,  212,  213,  216,  217,  218, 
221,  224,  225,  226,  228,  253,  265, 
319.  320,  353,  356,  376. 

Benzol,  170,  172,  176,  191,  199,  203, 
218,  221,  224,  225,  226,  228,  376. 

Bichromate,    1!)2. 

Blacking,   32(i,   327. 

nicaching  powders  and  solutions, 
li)3.  291,  317,  339. 

Boiled  oil,  170,   172,  319,  .339,  356.      . 

Brass,  147,  377. 


430 


Poisons    reported    as    occupational    haz- 
ards —  Continued. 
Brass  fumes,  127,  131,  134,  135,  138, 

144,  150,  183. 
Bronze,   143,   175,  176,  186. 
(Calcium  carbonate),  293,  342. 
Calcium  chloride,  340,  342. 
Carbon,  203,  345. 
Carbon  bisulphide,  199,  221,  224,  225, 

228. 
Carbon    dioxide,    135,    172,    186,   225, 

293,  315,  342,  349,  397. 
Carbon  monoxide,  122,  135,  172,  315, 

397. 
Carbon  tetrachloride,  224. 
Chemicals  (not  specified),*  320,  339, 

340. 
Chlorine,  225,   291. 
Chloroform,  199. 
Chrome  compounds    (not  specified), 

191,  242,  318,  337,  839. 
Cobalt,  252.   . 
Collodion,  191. 

Colors  (not  specified),  120,  177,  320, 

332,  350. 
Copper  sulphate,  162,  191,  316. 
Copper   sulphide,   340. 
Corrosives,  120,  191. 
Corrosive  sublimate,  191. 
Creosote,  170,  203. 
Cyanide (s),  154,  192,  318. 
Cyanamide,  348,  349. 
"Dead  gas",  293. 
Dyes,   120,  200,  319,  356. 
Enamel,  174,  353,  378. 
Essences,   271. 
Ether,  191,  199. 
Fatigue  toxins,  180. 
Ferric   chloride,   191,  275. 
Ferro-silicon,  301. 
Fish  glue,  326. 
Fulminate  of  mercury,  346. 
Fumes.* 
Gas(es).* 
Gasoline,  120,  167,  176,  182,  200,  327, 

339,  347,  349. 
"Gassing,"  300,  310. 
Gild,  176. 

Glue,  168,  289,  320,  347. 
(Glycerine),  270,  288. 


Poisons    reported    as    occupational    haz- 
ards —  Continued. 

Greases,  157,  177,  318,  320,  339,  340, 
347. 

(Gum),  287,  350. 

Hydrogen  sulphide,  318,  340,  342, 
344,  349. 

Inks,  177,  189. 

Iodine,   191. 

Japan,  175,  353. 
-    Lacquers,  120,  162,  172,  265,  353. 

(Lamp  black),  319. 

Lead  and  its  compounds,  60,  120, 
126,  131.  135,  138,  144,  147,  149, 
151,  152,  156,  158,  162,  163, 
(164),  168,  170,  172,  174,  183, 
186,  189,  191,  202,  203,  206,  207, 
208,  217,  229,  231,  232,  239,  242, 
246,  249,  252,  254,  257,  264,  265, 
266,  269,  270,  (277),  278,  281,  289, 
298,  299,  318,  319,  320,  328,  340, 
341,  342,  343,  '345,  346,  349,  353, 
355,  356,  357,   373,  389,  .393. 

Lead  oxide  (see  also  Lead).  342. 

(Licorice),  287,  288. 

Linseed  oil,  319,  839,  340,  356. 

Litharge,  257,  840,  356.  See  also 
Lead. 

(Lithopone),  356. 

(Logwood),  319. 

(Dolomite),   307. 

(Magnesite),  3n7. 

Manganese,  242,  257,  305,  340. 

Metal  (s)  and  Metallic  fumes  (not 
specified),*  135,  144,  150.  1-57, 
183. 

Mercury,  203,  205,  270,  346. 

Methane,  840,  397. 

Metol,  191. 

Naphtha  (sec  also  Benzine),  120, 
(164),  172,  174,  175,  182,  199, 
200,  228,  819,  320,  825,  826,  827, 
339,  353. 

Naphthaline,   122. 

"Nigrisn,"   319. 

Nitroglycerine,  846. 

(Nitrogen),  841,  897. 

Nitrous  oxide,  nitrates,  84."),  845. 

Oil  (fumes,  etc.,),  125,  126,  149,  157, 
170,  172,  817',  819,  882,  889,  810, 
847,  856. 


431 


Poisons    reported  las    occupational    haz- 
ards —  Continued. 
Paint (s),  painting,  147,  167,  170,  178, 

232,  35S,  356,  378. 
Paint  removers,   170. 
Paint  vapors,  172. 
Palm  oil,  158. 

Paraffin,  144,  186,  339,  340,  346. 
Perfume,  271. 
Petrol,  120.     Sec  also  Gasoline  and 

Naphtha. 
Petroleum,  339,  340. 
Phenol.     Sec  Acid,  carbolic. 
Phosphorus,  135,  205,  344. 
Pitch,  203,  282,  333. 
Plating  fumes,   144,   191. 
Poisons,   tables  of  occurrences,   361, 

372,  373,  375,  376,  377. 
Potassium  chlorate,  344. 
Potassium    cyanide,    126,    131,     144, 

147,  149,  160,  162,  191. 
Potassium   dichromate,   344. 
Potassium    ferrocyanide,   341. 
Potassium  hydroxide,  271,  341,  348. 
Pyroxylin,  176. 
(Ptomaines),   301. 
Realgar,  318. 
Read  Lead,  232,  257,  356.     Sec  also 

Lead. 
Resin,  282,  326,  337,  339,  344,  350. 
"Rouge,"  270. 
Saffron  yellow,   67. 
Salamander  gases,  125,  130,  135,  315. 
.Sal  ammoniac,  156,  158,  343. 
Salt,  290,  (298). 
Saltpetre,  345. 
Shellac (s),    120,    190,   265,   281,   325. 

326. 
Silicon  flouride,  349. 
Silver  nitrate,  191,  270. 
Smoke,   121,  124,  125,   127,   180,   138, 

152,  175,  177,  189,  190,  282.  292, 

300,  325,  339,  342. 
Soap  dust,  powders,  271,  272. 
Soda   ash,    257,   339.     Sec   al-o    So- 
dium hydroxide. 
Sodium  bicarbonate,  341,  342. 
Sodium  carbonate,  193,  339,  342. 
Sodium    hydroxide,     160,    271,    831, 

839,  840,  342,  346. 
Sodium   nitrate,  845. 


Poisons    reported   as    occupational    haz- 
ards —  Concluded. 
Solder,   152,  201,  203,  205,  264,  265, 

277,  278,  346,  379. 
Stains,  120,  252,  291. 
Substitutes  for  poisons,  171. 
Sulphur,  175,  222,  293,  345,  346. 
Sulphur  chloride,  221,  224,  225. 
Sulphur  dioxide,   135,  291,  340,  343, 

349. 
Superphosphates,   347. 
Tan  bark,  317. 
Tar,  333,  339,  340,  346. 
Tin   and   its   compounds   and   alloys, 

158,  266,  316. 
Tobacco,  168,  283,  284,  287,  288,  289, 

317. 
Toluene,  172. 
Toxins,   180. 

Turpentine,  120,  (164),  171,  172,  174, 
175,  177,  191,  199,  251,  265,  353, 
356. 
Vapors.* 

Varnish  and  varnish  removers,   170, 
172,  176,  178,  253,  265,  353,  355, 
356,  378. 
Volatile  substances,*  170. 
White  lead,  342.     See  also  Lead. 
Whiting,   328,   342. 
Wine,  282. 

Wood  alcohol,  120,  152,    (164),  167, 
171,  172,  176,  178,  182,  190,  191, 
199,  205,  221,  2-24,  266,  281,  319, 
325,  326,  327,  353. 
Zinc,  135,  149,  152,  156,  158,  242,  265. 
Zinc  chloride,  152,  158,  203,  343. 
Policemen,  58. 

Polish    (-ed,  -ers,  -ing),    {also   Buffing), 
61,   69,   134,   136,   141,  146,   152,   157, 
159,  160,  161,  168,  179,  201,  213,  262, 
265,  270,  298,  320,  327. 
Pollution   (of  air),*  26. 
Porcelain,  284,  239,  242*  247. 
Porcelain    enameled   iron    ware,   72,    173, 

26!). 
Port-holes,  247,  807. 
"Positive"     case     (defined,     diagnosed), 

859,  882. 
Postures,*  38. 
Potash.  341,  848. 
Potassium   chlorate.     See  P. 


432 


Potassium  cyanide   (see  also  P.),  161. 
Potassium  cyanide  substitutes,  149. 
Potassium  dichromate.    See  P. 
Potassium    ferrocyanide.     See    P. 
Potassium  hydroxide.     See  P. 
Potter's  asthma,  2. 
Potters    (-eries,    -making),,  72,    89,    229, 

357,  378. 
Pouring   (enamel),  173. 
Powder    (blasting,   sporting),  3-!4. 
Powder  mills,  345. 
Power  production,  122. 
Predisposition,  89. 

Premature   confinements    (due   to   lead), 
,       879. 
Presenile    (prematurely  aged),   186,  231, 

299,  300. 
Preserving,  83,  275,'  278. 
Press    (-ers,   -ing,   -rooms,   -work),    181, 

188,  189,  200,  225,  234,  262,  288,  296, 

330,  340,  345,  360. 
Pressing  objects   against  body,*  38,   112. 
"Prevalence  of   Occupational  Factors   in 

Disease,"  404. 
Preventable  deaths,  14,  137,  165. 
Preventable   diseases,   165. 
"Prevention  of  Lead  Poisoning,"'  378. 
Prevention     of     occupational     diseases,* 

400. 
Preventative  measures   (lead  poisoning), 

384. 
"Preventive     Medicine     and     Hygiene," 

400. 
Price,  Geo.  M.,  M.  D.,  9. 
Priming,   168. 

Principle(s)   I,  II,  III,  400,  401. 
Printers    (-ing),   and   publishing,  .73,   89, 

176,  185,  250,  356,  357. 
Privies.    See  Closets. 
"Process"    (defined),  55. 
Producer  gas,   122. 
Professional  men,  16,  89. 
Proprietors,*  16,  89. 
Prostration   (see  also  Heat),  29. 
"Protective  Measures,"  etc.,  354,  356. 
Proving    (printing),   191. 
Psychrometer,  25. 
Ptomaine  poisoning,  34,  301. 
Public  Health  Exhibit,  3,  403. 
Publicity,  3,  378,  402,  403. 
Publishing.     Sec  Printing. 


Puddling   furnaces,   307. 

Pug  mills,  229. 

Pugh,  Judge  Robert  C,  2. 

Pulmotors,  l22. 

Pulp,  336. 

Pumice,   266. 

Punch-pressing,    144. 

Pustular  affections,  97,  147.  158. 

Putties,  350. 

Pyorrhea.     See   O.   D. 

Pyroxylin,    176. 

Quarry    (-ies,   -ing,   -man),   14,   89,   265, 

268,  293. 
Quartzite,  301. 
Questionable   deaths,   13. 
Quick  drying.     See  Paints  and  Enamels. 
Rabbits   (test  purposes),  396. 
Rags    (see  also   D.,  and  Wiping  Rags), 

40,  157,  158,  182,  184,  334,  336,  338. 
Railroad  employes,  58. 
Railway  signals,   163. 
Rain  coats,  219. 
Rambotisek,  Dr.  J.,  9,  350,  398. 

Rattler  (-ing)  (see  also  Tumbling), 
139,  141. 

Recapitulation  of  industries  investi- 
gated, 108,  105. 

Recarburizing,  307. 

Reclaiming   (rubber),  228. 

Recommendations*,  95. 

Recreation,  38,  112,  181. 

Red  lead  (see  also  Lead),  174,  232,  257. 
356. 

Red  phosphorus,  205. 

Reference  books,  etc.,  9,  10. 

Refining  (metals,  oils),  182,  340. 

Refrigerators,  67,   153,  275. 

Refuse  cans,  146. 

Regalia,  etc.,  82. 

Regulations,*  46,  112. 

Relining   of    kegs,   282. 

Rendering  works,  347. 

Resin  (rosin)  (see  also  P.),  172,  175, 
177,  196. 

Respirators,*  46,  47,   112. 

Respiratory  affections.  See  Lung  dis- 
eases. 

Rest  rooms,*  38,  112. 

Retention   (of  workers),*  109, 

Retinitis,  acute,  22, 


433 


Rheumatism    {sec  also  O.   C.  &  O.   D.), 

13,  29,  31,  87,  88,  275. 
'"Rheumatism,"  380. 
Rhinitis   {see  also  Nose  affections),  173, 

264. 
Riveting   (metals),  144,  147. 
Rock  drilling,  267. 
Rolls,    rolling,    189,    194,    208,    211,    283, 

320,  337,  356. 
Roofing  materials,  73,  163,  334,  336,  338. 
Rope  making,  "rope  walk,"  332. 
Rosin.     See  Resin. 
Rosenau,   (Milton  J.),  400. 
Rotation  of  workers,*  48. 
"Rouge"  paste,  270. 
Routers,  routing,  191,  192. 
Routine,  117. 
Roving,  331. 

Rubber  Company's  Report,  55. 
Rubber    ingredients     (poisonous),    74. 
Rubber  goods,   workers,   65,   73,   74,   89, 

163,  191,  206,  265,  357,  378. 
Rubbing,  168,  247,  249,  319,  378,  379. 
Rug?,  199. 
Rum,  288. 

Rush  Medical  College,  404. 
Russell,  H.  L..  394,  398. 
ftusset  leather,  320. 
Rutland  Sanatorium  (Mass.),  401. 
Sacking,  295,  342,  347,  349. 
Sack-making,   181. 
Safes   and  vaults,  74,    170. 
Saffron  yellow,  67. 
Sagger  processes,  workers,  232,  235,  239, 

244. 
Salamanders,  27,  112,  125,  130,  135,  138, 

183,  315. 
Sal  ammoniac  {see  also  O.  D.),  154,  157. 
Salivarj'  disturbances,  260. 
Saloons,  112. 
Salt,  75,  289,  (298). 
Saltpeter.     See  P. 
"Salt  rheum",  272. 
Sanatorium,  401,  402. 
Sand    (-ers,    -ing,    -papering)     (see    also 

D.),  18,  27,  30,  33,  139,  107.  16,^,  173, 

247,  2G2,  379,  392. 
Sandblasting,  136,  139.  204,  265,  269.  298. 
Sanders-up,   302. 
.Sanitarians,  2^4. 


Saponification,  340. 

Sawduct.    See  D. 

Sawgrinder's   consumption,  2. 

Saw-mill    hands     (hookworm    disease), 

42. 
"Scale",  153. 
Scales  and  balances,  75. 
Scalding,  276. 
Scalp  affections,  271. 
Schereschewsky,  J.  W.    M.  D.,  92. 
Sciatica  {see  also  O.  C.  and  O.  D.),  129, 

130. 
Scope  and  methods  of  inquiry,  106. 
Scott,  Ernest,  M.  D.,  893. 
Scouring,  249,  265,  327,  330. 
Screw  machines,  147. 
Scrotum  irritation,  337. 
Scrubbing,  317,  319. 
Sealing,  sealing  wax,  205,  278,  350. 
Seasonal  influences*,  110. 
Section  hands,  58. 
Sedentary  work*,  38,  112. 
Selecting  (cigars),  285. 
Selection  of  workers*,  42,  112,  315. 
Self-poisoning,  38. 
Semi-curing  (rubber),  214. 
Sense  (sight  and  color),  150. 
"Sensible  temperature",  25. 
Sesquisulphide  of  phosphorus,  344. 
Sewer  pipe,  295,  296,  297. 
Sewing,  178,  181,  325,  330,  333. 
Sewing  machines,  etc.,  60. 
Shading   (pottery),  253. 
Shadows*,  112,  259. 
Shaw,  R.  H.,  399. 
Sheet  and  Tube  Company,  Youngstown, 

Ohio,  92. 
Sheet  iron,  63,  153,  156. 
Shellac    (-ers,  ing,  s),    {see  also  P.  and 

D),  69,  161,  168,  172. 
Shells,  346. 
Shelling,  276. 
Shields  and  screens*,  30. 
Ships   (-building),  30,  75. 
Shoddy    (rubber),  228. 
Shoes,  shoemakers,  42,  80.  81,  219.  321. 
Shop-painters,  30,   168,  378. 
Short  span  of  years,  260. 
Shot,  346. 
Shower  bath*,  31,  112,  247.  270,  310.  3] 9. 


434 


Sick    benefit    associations,    insurance*. 

Sick,  sickly*. 

Sick   records,   53,   55,   56,    192,   194,   358, 

386. 
Siderosis,  18,  139,  405. 
Sieving,  sifting,  173,  229,  250,  288. 
Signs  and  advertising  novelties,  75. 
"Silage,    Causes    Operative    in    the    Pro- 
duction of",  398. 
Silica     (-ia,    -on),     (see    also    D.),    256, 

295,  301. 
Silicon  carbide,  268. 
Silicon  flouride.     See  P. 
Silicosis,  18. 

Silo  (analyses  of  gases),  397. 
"Silo  for  the  Dairy,  The",  399. 
"Silo,   Four   Cases   of   Sudden   Death   in 

a",  394. 
Silver  nitrate.     See   P. 
Silver   workers,    etc.    (union    statistics), 

61. 
Sinks,  269. 
Sisal  hemp,  331. 
Size  (-ers,  -ing),  176.  250,  276,  288,  336, 

339. 
Sketching,  191. 
Skilled  workers*. 
Skin  affections    (see  also   O.   D.   and  O. 

C),  13,  29,  35,  41,  101,  112,  154,  163. 

203,  265,  266,  271. 
Skinning,  348. 
Skip  hoists,  302. 
Skivfeg,  324. 
Slag,  130,  350. 
Slate  mining,  267. 
Sleep   (-ing),  38,  260,  300,  338,  353. 
Sling  psychrometer,  25. 
Slip  house  (s),  229,  239. 
Slip-making   (pottery).  229,  232.  235. 
"Shoulder   drop",  380. 
Sluggishness,   38. 
Slushing    (enamel),  269. 
Smallpox.  41.  (147.  184. 
Smelting  and  refining,  76. 
Smoke   (see  also  P.),  122.  126,   128.  13!). 

269,  310,   841. 
Sneezing,  27,   178. 
Soap,  88,  27.0.  271. 
Soap  powder,  272. 
Soapstone   (see  also  D. ),   17. 
Social  Agencies,  Cincinnati.  K'. 


Social   delinquencies,   121. 

Social  disgust,  120,  121. 

Soda  ash  (see  also  P.),  258,  346. 

Soda  water,  334. 

Sodium  carbonate.     See  P. 

Sodium  bicarbonate.     See  P. 

Sodium  hydroxide.     See  P. 

Sodium   nitrate.     See    P. 

Soft  drinks  (see  also  Carbonated 
waters),   83. 

Soft  metals.     Sec  metals. 

Softening  boards,  320. 

Solder  (-ers,  -ing)  (see  also  P.),  69, 
143,  149,  151,  202,  263,  350,  351. 

Sodium  sulphide  test   (lead),  383. 

Sole  leather,  325. 

Solvay  process,  342. 

Soot.     See  D. 

Soreness,  35. 

Sorters   (-ing),  157,  192,  275,  288. 

South  Amherst  (t3'phoid  fever  out- 
break), 99.. 

Sparks,  150,  151. 

Spasms,  35. 

Special   investigations,   378. 

Special  process  (es),  112,  18-5. 

Specialty  making   (rubber),  219,  225. 

Speeding  up*,  38,  112. 

Spinning,  328,  329,  331,  332. 

Spidering,  205. 

Spinal  trouble,  122. 

Spirit  varnish,  175. 

Spitting*,  39,  112,  119. 

Splicing,  222,  224,  32.8,  330. 

Splitting,  320. 

Sponge  (-ers,  -ing),  205,  218,  222,  231). 

Sporting  powder,  344. 

Spots,  removal  of,  196. 

Sprague  Memorial  Institute,  404. 

Sprains,  56. 

Spray  (-ers,  -ing),  168,  170,  172,  173, 
174,  194,  250,  265,  269,  282. 

Spreading,  331. 

Springs,  76. 

"Staggers",  49. 

Stagnation    (of  air)*,  26. 

Stain  C-ers,  -ing.  s).  (see  also  P.).  168, 
172,    196. 

Stampers    (-ing),  250,  253,  327.  356. 

Standino*.  9,8.  112. 


435 


Starcliy  (}',  -ing),  (sec  also  D.),  195, 
278,  33.H. 

State  Board  of  Health  (Ohio),  401, 
406. 

Stationary  engineering,   122. 

Steam  (-ing),  (see  also  O.  C.)*,  23,  ^, 
112,  154,  160,  101,  194,  275,  276,  356. 

Steam  vulcanizing,  214,  218,  225. 

Stearin,  320. 

Steel,  473,  300. 

Steel  Company's  report,  56. 

Stemming  (tobacco),  283. 

Stench   (see  also  Odors),  340. 

Stenciling,  168,  171,  176. 

Stenographers,  14,  89. 

Stereotyping,  70,   187. 

Sterility,   151. 

Sterihzing,  278. 

Stewart    (Textbook  of   Physiology),   10, 

Stickers-up    (pottery),  234. 

Stifif  (-ness),  (see  also  O.  C),  31. 

Stiles'  method,  97. 

Stimulantism,   10,   50,   112,   406. 

Stippling,    190. 

Stitching    (shoes),    325. 

Stogies,  285. 

Stokers   (-ing),  121,  122. 

Stomach  trouble  (see  also  Digestive  dis- 
turbances), 87,  88,  129,  135,  347. 

Stone  (-processes,  -workers),  14,  18, 
79,  89,  191,  265. 

Stoneware,  229,  238,  239,  242,  244,  247, 
250. 

Stools   (and  chairs)*,  38,  112. 

Storage   (of  fertilizers),  349. 

Storage  batteries,  201,  378. 

Stoves.     Sec  Furnaces. 

Stovemen,  302. 

Stove-mounters,  136,  137. 

Strain*.  38,   112,  205. 

Stranding,  332. 

Straw.  256,  330. 

Street  cleaning,  291. 

Striker's  arthritis,  301. 

Stringing,  276. 

Striping,  168. 

Stripping,  283,  286,  287. 

"Study  of  Causes  of  TuberculDsis",   15. 

"Study  of  the  'Handicapped",   13. 

Stuffiing   (leather),  320. 

Stupor  and  stupefactinn,  213,  218, 


Sub-contract  system,  243. 

Substitutes,    substitution     (poisons),    46, 

171. 
Suction  fans*,  28. 
Sugar,  288. 
Suicide,  16,  87,  88. 
Suicidal   characteristics,   224. 
Sulphur  (see  also  P.),  223,  225. 
Sulphur  chloride    (see  also   P.),  74. 
Sulphur  dioxide  (see  also  P.),  225. 
Sulphurated    hydrogen.      See    Hydrogen 

sulphide. 
Suppuration,    virulent,    348. 
Summerfeld  and  Fischer,  9. 
Summarized  report,  53,  103,  357,  400. 
"Sunburn    (-ing)",  150,  300,  315. 
Sunday  work,  277,  279. 
Superphosphates.     See  P. 
Surgeon*,  41. 

Surgical  emergency  room*,  41. 
Suspicious   cases    (lead  poisoning),  381. 
Suspicious  conjunctivitis,  92. 
Swain,  C.  L.,  Speaker,  4,  5. 
Sweating    (tobacco),   288. 
Sweating    chamber     (oil    refining),    288,' 

340. 
Sweeping*,  39. 
Sweetmeats,  273. 
"Swelling  up",   122, 
"Symposium   on   Ventilation",   9. 
Syphilis.  39,  260. 
Syrups,  275. 
Tabacosis,    18,   285. 
Tailors    (-esses),  81,  82. 
"Talc,  talcum,  17,  203,  270. 
Tampers,  pneumatic,  131. 
Tan  bark,  317. 
Tankage.  348.  349. 
Tanneries   (-ing,  -s).  317,  347. 
Tar   (ing)    (see  also   P.),   121. 
Teachers,  80. 

Teeth.  56,  154,    150,  275,  209,  345. 
Telephone  girls,   89. 

Temperature-humidity    relations,    20,    27. 
Temperature.     See  Heat,  Cold*. 
Tempering,   129.   140,   147,  298,  299, 
"Tentative"    case    (defined,    diagnosed), 

359,  381,  382. 
Tentering,  350. 
Terne-plate,  77.   15(1.   15S, 
Terra   cotta,   72. 


436 


Tetanus.     See  Lock-jaw. 

Textile  (-s,  -workers)    {see  also  D.),  81, 

89,   199,  328. 
Thermic  fever,  29. 

Thermometer,    wet-and-dry-bulb,    25. 
Thomas  slag,  350. 
Thompson,  W.  Oilman,  M.  D.,  9. 
Threading,  144. 
Throat  affections    (see  also   O.   C),  32, 

56. 
Thumb  "jibs",  266. 
Ticks,  333. 

Tiles    (art),  229,  234,  239,  247,  253,  254. 
Tin    (-ners,   -ing,   -plating),   68,  85,   133, 

143,  150,  153,  156,  158,  266,  316,  357. 
Tin  cans.    See  Cans. 
Tin  foil,  288,  289. 
Tinting,  250,  251,  252. 
Tired  (-ness)    (see  also  O.  C),  217,  219. 
Tires   (rubber),  212,  214,  217,  224. 
Tobacco    (see  also   P.),  47,  82,  89,  202, 

282,  286,  289. 
"Tobacco  heart",  287,  289. 
Toilets.     Sec  Closets. 
Toleration    (of  health-hazards),    12,   43, 

213,  221,  353. 
Toluene,  172. 
Tonsillitis,  39. 
Tools,  64,   123. 

Top-fillers    (blast  furnace),  302. 
Tow,  177. 
Towels*,  39,  112. 
Toxins,   fatigue,   180,  405. 
Toys  and  games,  77. 
Trachoma,  39,  41,  92. 
Trade  process  (es)   (defined),  55,  406. 
Training,  35. 
Transfer   work,    190. 
"Treers",  324,  327. 
Tremors,  trembling,  35,  160,  353. 
Trimming,  320,  356. 
Trivial  injuries*,  41. 
Tubercle  bacilli,  18,  147. 
Tuberculosis  (see  also  O.  D.),  28,  36,  39, 

61,   87,   88,    126,  128,    129,   137,    142, 

167,  276,  301,  348,  383,  405. 
Tuberculosis      Agreement      (Overlock), 

401. 
Tuberculosis    'Hospital    Report,    Cincin- 

natti,  80. 
Tube  bending,  311. 


Tubulating,  205. 

Tumbling    (-machines)     (see   also    Rat- 
tlers), 132,  139,  199,  250,  346. 

Tunnel   (-ers,  -ing,  -s),  48,  101,  102. 

Turners     (pottery),    234. 

Turning  (metals),  144. 

Turpentine    (see   also    P.),   42,   74,    170, 
173,  250,  253, 

Twine,  78,  331,  332,  333. 

Twisting,  328,  329,  331. 

Type,  73,  186,  187,  188,  378. 

T3'pe    of    workers*,    109. 

Typhoid  epidemic   (Springfield),  99. 

Typhoid  fever   (see  also  O.  D.),  16,  41, 
42,  72,  99. 

T5'phoid    fever    outbreak     (South    Am- 
herst),  99. 

Ulcers  (see  also  O.  D.),  35,  191. 

Unconsciousness   (anilin  oil),  189. 

Under-glazing,  244. 

Underwear,  178,  328. 

Unemployable  persons,  120. 

Unfritted  glaze,  239. 

Unglazed  ware,  244. 

Unhairing,   317. 

Unions*,  109. 

Unskilled  workers*. 

Upholstering,  177. 

Urinary   affections    (see   also    Bladder), 

153,   176,  353. 
Urine,  test  for  lead  in,  387,  388,  391. 

Utensils,  269. 

Vacuum  cleaning,  20,  21,   186,  202,  236, 
238. 

Vacuum  Production    (mercury),  205. 

Vapor  cure    (rubber),  215,  224. 

Vapors.     See  O.  C.   (Breathing)*. 

Variation   (of  work)*,  38,  112. 

Varicocele,  55. 

Varicose  veins,  35. 

Varnish    (-ers,    -ing,    s)     (sec   also    P.), 
30,  31,  33,  37,  168,  171,  173,  175,  177. 

Vaults,  74,   170. 

Vegetables,  278. 

Vegetable  dyes,  200. 

Vehicles,  378. 

Veneering,  165. 

VENEREAL  DISEASES*,  50. 
V'enereal  diseases   (see  also  O.  D.),  112. 
213.  246. 


437 


Ventilation*,  29,  131,  158,  167,  170,  175, 

177,  181,  186,  189,  199,  238,  334. 
'"Ventilation,  Symposium  on  ",  9. 
Ventilator,  to  convert  an  ordinary  sash 

window  into  a,  28. 
Vibrating  tools,  147,  304. 
Vignetting,    190,    191. 
Vining,  276. 
Vintners,  399. 

Violence   (statistics),  13,  128,  142. 
Vital  organs,  38,  46. 
Vital  and  morbidity  statistics    (see  also 

Part  VI.), 

Age,  13,  61,  87,  101,  319,  383. 

Agricultural  pursuits,   14,    (357). 

Artists,  357. 

Barbers,    101. 

Blacksmiths,  126. 

Boot    and    shoe    factory    operatives, 
80. 

Bottlers,  88. 

Brass  workers,  etc.,  14,  61,  134,  141. 

Brewery  wagon  drivers,  88. 

Brewers,  88. 

Bricklayers,  58. 

Building  constructors,  58. 

Cancer,  13. 

Carpenters,  14,  27,  89. 

Cigar  factory  operatives,  83. 

Circulatory  diseases,   13. 

Clothing  workers,  81. 
.   Coal   miners,   101. 

Degenerative    diseases,    14,    57,    137, 
142. 

Dock  laborers,  58. 

Domestics,  14. 

Electrical   workers,  58. 

Electroplaters,   etc.,   61. 

Engineers  and  firemen,  123. 

Farmers,     planters     and     overseers 
(tuberculosis),    14. 

File-cutters,  800. 

Foundry  w'orkers,  58,  6Q. 

Glassworkers,  etc.,  84,  89. 

Glaziers,  etc.,  168. 

Heat  exposed  workers,  58. 

Industrial,  9. 

Injuries,    16,   61,    137,    142. 

Iron   and   steel  workers,   14,  57,   58, 
85. 

Joiners,  27. 


Vital  and  morbidity  statistics    (see  also 

Part  VI.)— Concluded. 

Laborers,  58,  357. 

Lead  workers,  357. 

Laundry-workers,  86. 

Lock-jaw,  13. 

Machinists,  66,  357. 

Marble  and  stone  workers,  79. 

Mechanics,  etc.,  58. 

Mechanical  and  manufacturing  pur- 
suits, 117. 

Metal  grinding,  137. 

Miners,  14,  89,  101. 

Molders,   06,  428. 

Occupied   males,   14,  404. 

Old  age,  13. 

One  fault  in,  53. 

Painters,  etc.,  14,  168,  357,  383. 

Paper-hangers,    etc.,    168. 

Photo-engravers,  192. 

Pneumonia,  16,  57. 

Policemen,  58. 

Polishers,  etc.,  61,  141. 

Potters,  72,  358. 

Preventable  diseases,  14,  57,  137,  142. 

Printers  and  publishers,  73,  357. 

Proprietors    and    professional    men, 
16,  89. 

Quarrymen,   14,  89. 

Railroad   employes,  58. 

Rope-makers,  332. 

Rubberworkers,  55",  56,  74,  d57. 

Section   hands,   58. 
■    Shoemakers,  81. 

Silver  workers,  etc.,  61. 

Stenographers,  14,  89. 

Stone-cutters,  14,  89. 

Stove  mounters,  137. 

Tailors   (-esses),  81,  82. 

Tanners,  318. 

Tinners,   357. 

Tobaccoworkers,  83. 

Tuberculosis*,  13,  14,  15,  16,  57,  89, 
126,  383,  405. 

Upholsterers,    178. 

Weather  exposed  workers,  58. 

Woodworkers,    165. 
Volatile  substances*,  170,  175. 
Vomiting,  300,  349. 
Vulvanizing,  214,  222,  225. 
Voltage   (welding),   150. 


438 


Wad   (-ding),  333,  334,  346. 

Wagons,  etc.,  62. 

Walnut,  dust,  167. 

Wall  writings,  50. 

Warming  mills  (rubber),  211. 

Warping  (textiles),  328,  329. 

Wash-basins,*  89. 

Wash  houses,  280. 

Washing  processes,*   192,   206,  229,   276, 

282,  328,  330. 
Washing  facilities  (sec  also  O.  C.),*  46, 

110,  112,  299. 
Waste,  41,  147,  182. 
Wasters  (sheet  tin),  157. 
Water  closets,*  46. 
Water   (for  drinking  purposes).* 
Water,  cold   (complaints),  282. 
Water-cooled  doors,  30. 
Water,  hot   (complaints),  282. 
W^ater  sprays,  31. 
Water  wall,  253. 
Wax,  162,  163,  326. 
Weak,  weakness,  253,  384. 
Weather  exposure,*  58,  300. 
Weaving,  325,  329,  330. 
Wedemeyer  sandblast  rooms,  141. 
Wefting,  328. 
Weight,  loss  of,*  231,  238. 
Weil's  disease,  42. 
Welding,  22,  136,  146,  150,  152. 
West  Virginia  (hookworm),  96. 
Wet-and-dry-bulb   thermometer,   25. 
White  coloring    (shoes),  328. 
Whitening    (leather),   320. 
Whiting,   328,   341. 
White  lead  (see  also  Lead),  342. 
White  pickle,   153,   157. 


Whiteware,  229,  238,  247. 

Winding,  205,  328,  329. 

Wine,  282. 

Wiping  rags,*  39,  41,  112,  126,  147,  170. 

Wire  drawing,  316. 

Wire  and  wire  work.  88,  205,  300. 

Woltz,  Mr.,  96. 

Wood  alcohol  (see  also  P.).  42.  74,  170, 

265. 
Wood    (t\'pes,    processes,    workers),    18, 

80,   9i,    129,   146,    165,   169,   173,  333, 

336. 
Wooden  goods,  78,  165,  293. 
Wool    (types,    processes,    workers),    39, 

179,  329,  330,  340,  347. 
Woolen  goods,  81,  328,  329.  330,  333. 
Woolsorters'   disease,  331. 
Work,  foul  nature  of,  335. 
Work  shifts,*  110. 
Work  variation,*  38,  112. 
W'rappers,  283. 
Wringing,   288. 
"Wrist  drop,"  380. 
Wry  neck,  35,  130. 
X-ray,   151. 
Yeast  dermatitis,  317. 
Yeast-makers,  399. 
Young  persons,*  36. 
Youngstown     (Ohio)     Sheet    and    Tube 

Company,  92. 

Zinc  (see  also  P.),  42,  138,  176,  192.  208. 

Zinc  chills,  156,  158,  242. 

Zinc  chloride.     See  P. 

Zinc  glaze,  242. 

Zinc  etchings,  190. 

Zinc  oxide,  150. 


Date  Due 

f) 

IIA.787  0h3 

Ohio»     Dept.   of  health 


